Adolf Ulrik Wertmüller stands as a fascinating figure in late 18th and early 19th-century art, a Swedish painter whose career bridged the opulent courts of pre-Revolutionary Europe and the nascent artistic landscape of the young United States. His work, characterized by a refined Neoclassical technique blended with a sensitive portrayal of his subjects, earned him accolades and commissions from royalty and prominent figures on both continents. Though perhaps not as universally recognized today as some of his contemporaries, Wertmüller's contributions to portraiture and historical painting, along with his unique life story, offer a rich insight into the artistic currents of his time.
Early Life and Artistic Formation in Sweden
Born in Stockholm, Sweden, on February 18, 1751, Adolf Ulrik Wertmüller was immersed in a family with connections to the arts and pharmacy. His father, Johan Ulrik Wertmüller, was an apothecary, and his mother was Maria Ravens. From an early age, young Adolf displayed a proclivity for drawing, an interest that was nurtured, leading him to formal artistic training.
His initial studies commenced at the Royal Swedish Academy of Fine Arts (Kungliga Akademien för de fria konsterna) in Stockholm. Here, he came under the tutelage of the Swedish painter Lorentz Pasch the Younger (1733-1805). Pasch, himself from a family of artists, was a respected portraitist known for his elegant Rococo style, which was prevalent in Sweden at the time. Under Pasch, Wertmüller would have learned the fundamentals of drawing, composition, and oil painting, likely focusing on the portraiture that was in high demand among the Swedish aristocracy and bourgeoisie. The Academy, founded to elevate the status of artists and provide structured training, would have exposed him to classical principles, though the prevailing taste still leaned towards the lighter, more decorative aspects of Rococo.
The Parisian Crucible: Training and Early Success
Seeking to further hone his skills and immerse himself in the continent's artistic epicenter, Wertmüller, like many ambitious artists of his generation, made his way to Paris in 1772. This move was pivotal. In Paris, he had the distinct advantage of studying with his maternal cousin, Alexander Roslin (1718-1793). Roslin was a highly successful Swedish expatriate portrait painter who had established a stellar reputation in Paris, renowned for his dazzling depictions of European royalty and aristocracy, particularly his masterful rendering of fabrics and textures. Working in Roslin's studio provided Wertmüller with invaluable experience and access to a high-caliber artistic environment.
However, Wertmüller's Parisian education did not end there. He also became a student of Joseph-Marie Vien (1716-1809). Vien was a crucial figure in the development of Neoclassicism in France, a movement that sought to return to the perceived purity and gravitas of classical Greek and Roman art, reacting against the perceived frivolity of the Rococo style. Vien, who later became the director of the French Academy in Rome and a Premier peintre du Roi (First Painter to the King), instilled in his students a rigorous approach to drawing, anatomy, and the study of classical antiquity. This tutelage under Vien was instrumental in shaping Wertmüller's mature style, tempering any Rococo inclinations with Neoclassical discipline, clarity, and a certain statuesque quality in his figures. It was during this period that Wertmüller diligently studied perspective and ancient Roman art, further refining his technical abilities.
His talent did not go unnoticed. In 1783, Wertmüller was elected to the Royal Swedish Academy of Fine Arts, a significant honor that recognized his growing stature. The following year, in 1784, he was also accepted into the prestigious French Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture (Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture) in Paris, a testament to his skill and his successful integration into the competitive Parisian art world. His reception piece for the French Academy was a portrait of Jean-Jacques Bachelier, a fellow artist.
Royal Patronage and European Acclaim
Wertmüller's rising reputation soon attracted royal attention. King Gustav III of Sweden (1746-1792), a renowned patron of the arts and a figure central to the Swedish Enlightenment, took a keen interest in the painter. The King, who actively sought to elevate Sweden's cultural standing, recognized Wertmüller's talent. This connection was likely facilitated by individuals such as Gustaf Filip Creutz, the Swedish ambassador to France, who was instrumental in bringing Wertmüller's work to the King's notice.
One of Wertmüller's most significant royal commissions came from Gustav III: a portrait of Queen Marie Antoinette of France. In 1785, Wertmüller painted the Queen, and later, in 1788, he completed a notable equestrian portrait, Marie-Antoinette de Lorraine-Habsbourg, en habits d'amazone (Marie Antoinette in an Amazon Riding Habit). This painting, now in the Nationalmuseum in Stockholm, depicts the Queen with a dignified yet somewhat melancholic air, rendered with Wertmüller's characteristic precision and elegant handling of paint. The commission itself was a mark of high favor, placing Wertmüller in the company of other esteemed portraitists of the Queen, such as Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun (1755-1842). The assistance of Henriette Genet-Campan, Marie Antoinette's first lady-in-waiting, was reportedly helpful in navigating the practicalities of the commission and securing payment.
His success was such that King Gustav III appointed him "Hovmålare" (Court Painter) or "Premier peintre" (Chief Painter), a prestigious title that solidified his position as one of Sweden's leading artists, even while he was largely based in France. He also painted other members of the French royal family, including the Portrait of the French Dauphin Louis (1784), the eldest son of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, who died young.
Masterworks of the European Period
During his European career, Wertmüller produced several works that cemented his reputation. Beyond his royal portraits, his mythological paintings also garnered significant attention, most notably Danaë and the Shower of Gold (often simply referred to as Danaë).
Danaë and the Shower of Gold
Completed in 1787, Danaë and the Shower of Gold depicts the mythological story of Danaë, daughter of King Acrisius of Argos. An oracle foretold that Acrisius would be killed by his grandson, so he imprisoned Danaë in a bronze tower to prevent her from conceiving. However, Zeus, king of the gods, desired her and visited her in the form of a shower of golden rain, impregnating her. She later gave birth to Perseus.
Wertmüller’s rendition of this subject was both artistically accomplished and controversial for its time. The painting features a life-sized, sensuous nude figure of Danaë reclining on a lavish bed, her body illuminated as golden coins rain down upon her. The work is characterized by its smooth, Neoclassical finish, meticulous attention to anatomical detail, and the rich rendering of textures – the soft flesh, the opulent drapery, and the gleaming gold. While mythological nudes were an established genre, Wertmüller's Danaë was considered particularly bold and explicit by some contemporary viewers, pushing the boundaries of acceptability. Its realism and the directness of Danaë's pose contributed to its notoriety. Despite, or perhaps because of, the controversy, the painting became one of his most famous works, exhibited in Paris and later in America, where it continued to provoke discussion. It is now a prized possession of the Nationalmuseum in Stockholm. This work can be seen in the lineage of other famous depictions of Danaë, such as those by Titian or Rembrandt, though Wertmüller brings his distinct Neoclassical precision to the theme.
Marie-Antoinette de Lorraine-Habsbourg, en habits d'amazone
As mentioned, the 1788 portrait of Marie Antoinette in riding attire is another key work from this period. It showcases Wertmüller's skill in capturing not only a likeness but also the status and personality of his sitter. The Queen is presented with an air of regal composure, yet there's a subtle vulnerability in her expression, perhaps hinting at the turbulent times that were fast approaching. The meticulous rendering of her costume and the horse demonstrates Wertmüller's technical prowess, learned from masters like Roslin and refined through his Neoclassical training. Such portraits were important tools of statecraft and personal image-making, and Wertmüller proved adept at fulfilling these demanding requirements.
Other notable works from his European period include the Portrait of Henri Bertholet-Campan with the Dog Aline (1786) and the Portrait of a Young Woman (1786), both also in the Nationalmuseum, Stockholm, showcasing his versatility in portraiture.
The American Venture: A New Chapter
The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 dramatically altered the artistic landscape of Paris and the patronage system upon which artists like Wertmüller depended. The aristocracy, his primary clientele, was overthrown, and the general turmoil made continued work in France precarious. After a period in Bordeaux and then Spain, Wertmüller made a life-changing decision. In 1794, he set sail for the United States, arriving in Philadelphia in May.
Philadelphia at that time was the temporary capital of the United States and a vibrant cultural center. Wertmüller arrived with letters of introduction and a portfolio that included his famous Danaë, which he exhibited to paying audiences, a common practice for artists to generate income and publicity. He sought to establish himself as a portrait painter in this new republic, hoping to find patrons among the emerging political and mercantile elite.
Portraits of a New Republic
One of Wertmüller's most significant undertakings in America was to paint a portrait of the nation's first president, George Washington. He secured sittings with Washington in Philadelphia in late 1794. The resulting Portrait of George Washington (1795), now in the Philadelphia Museum of Art, is a formal, dignified depiction of the president. Rendered in Wertmüller's characteristic Neoclassical style, it presents Washington with a certain stoic grandeur, meticulously detailed.
However, the reception of Wertmüller's Washington portrait was mixed. While technically proficient, some Americans found it too stiff, too European, and lacking the more direct, relatable quality they preferred in depictions of their leader. It stood in contrast to the portraits of Washington by native-born or longer-established American artists like Charles Willson Peale (1741-1827), who had a long-standing relationship with Washington, or Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828), whose "Athenaeum" portrait of Washington would become the most iconic image of the president. Stuart's style, while also sophisticated, possessed a freshness and an ability to capture character that resonated more strongly with American tastes. Wertmüller's Washington, while a valuable historical document, did not achieve the widespread popularity of Stuart's versions.
Despite this, Wertmüller did find some success in America. He painted portraits of other prominent figures and contributed to the burgeoning art scene in Philadelphia. He became a respected member of the artistic community, and his presence, along with that of other European-trained artists, helped to elevate the standards and aspirations of American art. He established a friendship with Charles Willson Peale, a leading figure in the American art world, who was an artist, naturalist, and founder of one of the first museums in the United States. Peale reportedly helped Wertmüller by bringing some of his earlier works to the New World.
Wertmüller's time in America was not continuous. He returned to Europe in 1796, spending time in Sweden. However, he came back to the United States in 1800. He married Elizabeth Henderson, a granddaughter of the noted American artist Gustavus Hesselius (1682-1755), another Swedish-born painter who had made his career in America much earlier. This marriage connected him to an established American artistic lineage.
Artistic Style and Techniques
Wertmüller's artistic style is best described as a refined Neoclassicism, characterized by clarity of form, smooth brushwork, precise drawing, and a balanced composition. His training under Vien was fundamental in shaping this Neoclassical foundation, evident in the somewhat sculptural quality of his figures and his careful attention to anatomical accuracy. The influence of his cousin, Alexander Roslin, can be seen in his skilled rendering of textures, particularly fabrics, and a certain elegance in his portraiture that retained a hint of Rococo grace.
He was meticulous in his technique, often building up paint in thin, smooth layers to achieve a polished finish. His portraits aimed to convey the dignity and status of his sitters, but he was also capable of capturing psychological nuances, as seen in the subtle expressions of figures like Marie Antoinette. In his mythological works like Danaë, he combined Neoclassical idealism with a sensuous realism that could be quite striking.
His use of light was often carefully controlled, illuminating his subjects to define form and create a sense of volume. His color palettes were generally rich but harmonious, avoiding the more flamboyant excesses of the Rococo in favor of a more restrained, classical sensibility. While in America, his style remained largely consistent with his European training, which, as noted with the Washington portrait, sometimes contrasted with the developing tastes of the new republic that often favored a more direct and less idealized approach.
Wertmüller's Contemporaries and Influences
To fully appreciate Wertmüller's place, it's useful to consider him in the context of his contemporaries.
In Sweden, his early teacher Lorentz Pasch the Younger represented the established Rococo tradition. Other prominent Swedish artists of the Gustavian era included the sculptor Johan Tobias Sergel (1740-1814), who was a leading figure of Swedish Neoclassicism, and painters like Pehr Hilleström (1732-1816), known for his genre scenes and depictions of industrial environments.
In Paris, Alexander Roslin was a towering figure in portraiture. Joseph-Marie Vien was a key pedagogue of Neoclassicism, whose students also included the preeminent Neoclassical painter Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825). David's more austere and politically charged Neoclassicism would come to dominate French art during and after the Revolution. Wertmüller operated in the same milieu as celebrated portraitists like Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, whose career, like Wertmüller's, was profoundly impacted by the Revolution. Other French artists of the period whose work provides context include Jean-Honoré Fragonard (1732-1806), a master of the late Rococo, and Jean-Baptiste Greuze (1725-1805), known for his sentimental genre scenes and portraits.
In America, Wertmüller joined an artistic community that included:
Charles Willson Peale: A versatile artist, naturalist, and museum founder, central to Philadelphia's cultural life.
Gilbert Stuart: Who became the foremost portraitist of the Federal period, especially known for his images of George Washington.
John Trumbull (1756-1843): Known for his historical paintings of the American Revolution and portraits.
Benjamin West (1738-1820): An American-born painter who became a leading historical painter in London and President of the Royal Academy, influencing many American artists who studied abroad.
John Singleton Copley (1738-1815): Another American who found great success in London, known for his powerful portraits and historical scenes.
John Wesley Jarvis (1780-1840): A younger American artist who reportedly owned and exhibited Wertmüller's Danaë for a time, suggesting Wertmüller's work continued to have a presence and influence even after his most active period.
Wertmüller's European training set him apart, bringing a level of technical polish and a specific stylistic approach that was distinct within the American context.
Later Years and Legacy
After his second return to the United States and his marriage, Wertmüller eventually retired from active painting. He purchased a farm at Naaman's Creek, near Marcus Hook in Claymont, Delaware, not far from Philadelphia. There, he spent his final years as a gentleman farmer. He died on his farm on October 5, 1811.
Wertmüller's legacy is that of a highly skilled and accomplished painter who successfully navigated the shifting artistic and political landscapes of late 18th-century Europe and early America. In Sweden and France, he achieved considerable recognition, patronized by royalty and admired for his technical finesse and elegant Neoclassicism. His Danaë remains an important work in the history of mythological painting and the representation of the female nude.
In the United States, his impact was more nuanced. While he produced significant portraits, including that of George Washington, his European style did not always align perfectly with American aesthetic preferences of the time. Nevertheless, his presence in Philadelphia contributed to the development of American art by exposing local artists and audiences to a high standard of European academic painting. His works are held in major collections, including the Nationalmuseum in Stockholm, the Philadelphia Museum of Art, and the Winterthur Museum. The Pennsylvania Historical Society also holds works, recognizing his role in the region's art history.
Historical Reception and Enduring Significance
Historically, Wertmüller has been esteemed in Sweden as one of the notable artists of the Gustavian era. His connection to the Swedish and French courts, and the quality of his major works, secure his place in European art history. His decision to emigrate to America adds a unique dimension to his career, making him one of a number of European artists who sought new opportunities in the New World, enriching its cultural fabric.
While he may not have achieved the lasting fame of a David or a Stuart in their respective national narratives, Adolf Ulrik Wertmüller remains a significant artist. His paintings serve as valuable historical documents, offering insights into the personalities and tastes of his era. His transatlantic career exemplifies the interconnectedness of the art world even in the late 18th century and highlights the challenges and opportunities faced by artists in a period of profound social and political upheaval. His dedication to his craft and the refined quality of his best works ensure his enduring, if specialized, recognition among connoisseurs of Neoclassical art and early American portraiture. His life and work underscore the complex interplay of artistic tradition, personal ambition, and the ever-changing currents of history.
