Eleuterio Pagliano (1826-1903) stands as a significant, if sometimes overlooked, figure in the vibrant tapestry of 19th-century Italian art. His life and work are inextricably linked with the fervent nationalism and revolutionary spirit of the Risorgimento, the movement for Italian unification. A painter, printmaker, and dedicated patriot, Pagliano translated the ideals and dramatic events of his time into compelling visual narratives. His artistic journey began under the sway of Neoclassicism but soon embraced the emotional intensity and historical focus of Romanticism, making him a key participant in the artistic currents that swept through Milan and the newly forming Italian nation. This exploration delves into his origins, artistic development, pivotal works, his role as an educator, and his connections within the dynamic artistic milieu of his era.
Early Life and Artistic Formation at the Brera
Born in Casale Monferrato, then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia, in 1826, Eleuterio Pagliano's artistic inclinations led him to Milan, the bustling cultural and political heart of Lombardy. In 1848, a year of widespread revolution across Europe, he enrolled at the prestigious Accademia di Belle Arti di Brera. This institution was a crucible for artistic talent, and its teachings, at that time, were still heavily influenced by Neoclassicism. Pagliano initially studied under Giuseppe Sogni (1795-1874), a painter who, while competent, represented the waning Neoclassical tradition that emphasized order, clarity, idealized forms, and subjects drawn from classical antiquity or mythology.
The Neoclassical aesthetic, championed by figures like Antonio Canova (1757-1822) in sculpture and Andrea Appiani (1754-1817) in painting, had dominated European art for decades. It sought to revive the artistic principles of ancient Greece and Rome, valuing reason and didacticism. However, by the mid-19th century, the winds of change were blowing strongly. The burgeoning Romantic movement, with its emphasis on emotion, individualism, the sublime power of nature, and a fascination with national history and folklore, was capturing the imagination of a new generation of artists.
Pagliano, like many of his contemporaries, found the expressive possibilities of Romanticism more attuned to the turbulent times and his own passionate temperament. While his early training provided a solid foundation in drawing and composition, he soon gravitated towards the leading figures of Milanese Romanticism. Chief among these was Francesco Hayez (1791-1882), a towering figure in Italian Romantic painting. Hayez was renowned for his historical paintings, often imbued with subtle patriotic allegories, as well as his sensitive portraits and sensuous nudes. His influence on Pagliano would be profound, particularly in the choice of historical themes and the dramatic rendering of human emotion.
Another significant influence was Tranquillo Cremona (1837-1878), though Cremona was younger and his mature style, associated with the Scapigliatura movement, would develop later. However, the broader Romantic atmosphere in Milan, characterized by a departure from rigid academicism and an embrace of more personal and emotionally charged expression, undoubtedly shaped Pagliano's evolving artistic vision. The shift from the cool rationality of Neoclassicism to the fervent passion of Romanticism was a defining characteristic of his formative years at the Brera.
The Call of Patriotism: Pagliano and the Risorgimento
Pagliano's time at the Brera Academy coincided with a period of intense political upheaval. The desire for Italian unification and independence from foreign domination, particularly Austrian rule in Lombardy-Venetia, fueled the Risorgimento. Pagliano was not merely an observer of these events; he was an active participant, a patriot who wielded both the brush and the sword for the cause of Italy.
In March 1848, Milan rose against its Austrian rulers in what became known as the "Cinque Giornate" (Five Days of Milan). Pagliano, then a young student, threw himself into the fray, joining the popular forces fighting on the barricades. This direct experience of revolutionary struggle and the collective yearning for freedom left an indelible mark on his psyche and his art. The heroism, sacrifice, and raw emotion he witnessed would become recurring themes in his work.
His commitment to the Risorgimento did not end there. In 1849, he traveled to Rome to fight alongside Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882), one of the most iconic figures of Italian unification, during the defense of the short-lived Roman Republic. These experiences of combat and camaraderie, of witnessing history unfold firsthand, provided him with a wealth of subject matter and a profound understanding of the human cost of conflict and the passionate drive for national identity. His art became a vehicle for commemorating these struggles and celebrating the heroes of the Risorgimento. This direct involvement distinguished him from artists who merely depicted historical events from a distance; Pagliano painted with the conviction of one who had lived them.
A Romantic Vision: Themes and Artistic Style
Eleuterio Pagliano's oeuvre is dominated by historical and patriotic themes, directly reflecting his engagement with the Risorgimento. His style evolved into a distinctly Romantic one, characterized by dramatic compositions, rich color palettes, and a focus on conveying the emotional intensity of his subjects. He sought to capture not just the factual details of an event but its underlying spirit and human drama.
His paintings often depicted key moments from the Italian wars of independence, portraits of national heroes, or allegorical scenes that resonated with the patriotic sentiments of the time. He moved away from the idealized and static figures of Neoclassicism, imbuing his characters with a sense of movement, passion, and psychological depth. His brushwork became more visible and expressive, contributing to the overall dynamism of his compositions.
The influence of Francesco Hayez is evident in Pagliano's approach to historical painting. Like Hayez, Pagliano understood the power of narrative and the ability of art to stir national pride. However, Pagliano's direct combat experience perhaps lent his battle scenes a particular rawness and immediacy. He was adept at capturing the chaos of war, the courage of soldiers, and the sorrow of loss, often focusing on individual acts of heroism or poignant moments of sacrifice. His works aimed to create an emotional connection with the viewer, fostering a shared sense of identity and purpose rooted in the struggle for a unified Italy.
Masterpieces of Paint and Print
Eleuterio Pagliano was a versatile artist, proficient not only in oil painting but also as a watercolourist and a highly skilled etcher. His printmaking, in particular, allowed for wider dissemination of his patriotic imagery and showcased his technical finesse.
Among his most celebrated paintings is the Death of Luciano Manara (versions exist, one often dated around 1850). Luciano Manara was a charismatic Lombard patriot and a leader in the 1848 Milan uprising and later a commander under Garibaldi, who died heroically during the defense of the Roman Republic in 1849. Pagliano, having fought in Rome, likely felt a personal connection to this subject. The painting captures the tragic heroism of Manara's final moments, a poignant tribute to a fallen hero of the Risorgimento. Such works served as powerful reminders of the sacrifices made for Italian liberty.
Another significant work is The Weighing at the Solferino Cemetery (also known as Pesa del cimitero di Solferino or The Battle of Solferino Cemetery, with versions dated around 1853 or 1857). The Battle of Solferino (1859) was a brutal engagement in the Second Italian War of Independence, and its aftermath, with thousands of wounded and dying soldiers, inspired Henry Dunant to found the Red Cross. Pagliano's depiction, likely focusing on the grim task of identifying and burying the dead, would have resonated deeply with a public all too familiar with the costs of war. It highlights his ability to find the human element even in the grand sweep of historical events.
Pagliano also explored other historical and allegorical themes. Works like La Ragione di Stato (Reason of State) and The Divorce of Napoleon I demonstrate his interest in broader historical narratives and the complexities of power. His painting Marmalada (the exact subject of which is less commonly detailed, but the title is noted) achieved significant recognition when it was purchased by the Khedive of Egypt at the Milan Exhibition of 1872, a testament to his growing reputation.
Beyond these large-scale historical canvases, Pagliano was a gifted etcher. His etchings, such as The Falconer (1891) and Il Passaggio al Ticino a Sesto Calende dei Cacciatori delle Alpi il 23 maggio 1859 (The Crossing of the Ticino at Sesto Calende by the Alpine Hunters on May 23, 1859) (1865), showcase his mastery of line and his ability to create atmospheric effects. The latter work, depicting a scene from the Second Italian War of Independence, again underscores his commitment to Risorgimento themes. His etching Mezzetti 352 (1884) is particularly noted and considered one of his finest in this medium, praised for its experimental qualities and technical skill. The 19th century saw a significant revival of etching as an original art form, and Pagliano was a notable contributor to this trend in Italy.
He also undertook large-scale decorative projects, creating murals for the Milan railway station and for theatres in Como and Verona. These public commissions further solidified his presence in the artistic landscape of Lombardy and demonstrated his versatility in handling different scales and mediums.
The Milanese Art Scene: Contemporaries, Movements, and Recognition
Milan in the mid-to-late 19th century was a vibrant center for artistic innovation and discourse. Pagliano was an active participant in this scene, his career intersecting with those of many other prominent artists. His connections were forged at the Brera Academy, through shared political commitments, and within various artistic circles.
Among his contemporaries from the Brera was Domenico Induno (1815-1878). Like Pagliano, Domenico Induno was deeply involved in the Risorgimento, and his genre scenes often depicted everyday life with a patriotic undertone. His brother, Gerolamo Induno (1825-1890), was also a painter known for his battle scenes and depictions of military life, sharing Pagliano's thematic concerns. The Induno brothers, along with Pagliano, represented a core group of artists committed to chronicling the Italian struggle for unification.
Pagliano's association with Tranquillo Cremona (1837-1878) is particularly noteworthy. Cremona became a leading figure of the Scapigliatura movement, a bohemian and anti-establishment artistic and literary movement that emerged in Milan in the 1860s and 1870s. The Scapigliati (meaning "dishevelled" or "bohemian") rejected academic conventions and bourgeois values, seeking new forms of expression characterized by sfumato-like brushwork, an interest in capturing fleeting moments and psychological states, and a certain melancholic sensibility. While Pagliano's style remained more rooted in traditional Romantic history painting, his reported involvement with Cremona in the "Società della Confusione" (Society of Confusion) around 1860 suggests an openness to the avant-garde currents of the time. Other key Scapigliatura painters included Daniele Ranzoni (1843-1889), known for his ethereal portraits.
Antonio Caimi (1811-1878), a fellow artist and art historian, was another contemporary with whom Pagliano likely interacted, particularly in the context of the Brera exhibitions and public art projects in Milan. These exhibitions were crucial venues for artists to showcase their work and gain recognition. Pagliano's works were frequently exhibited not only in Milan but also in other Italian cities like Turin and Parma, and internationally, including at the Berlin Exhibition of 1867.
The broader Italian art scene included movements like the Macchiaioli in Florence, whose members included Giovanni Fattori (1825-1908), Silvestro Lega (1826-1895), and Telemaco Signorini (1835-1901). While distinct from Milanese Romanticism and Scapigliatura, the Macchiaioli also engaged with Risorgimento themes, particularly Fattori in his depictions of military life and battle scenes, using a style characterized by "macchie" (patches or spots) of color to capture light and form. Though Pagliano's direct interaction with the Macchiaioli is not heavily documented, they were part of the same national artistic awakening.
Pagliano's artistic achievements earned him considerable respect. The purchase of his painting Marmalada by the Khedive of Egypt was a significant honor, and his works were generally well-received in exhibitions. His ability to connect with the patriotic fervor of his audience, combined with his technical skill, ensured his place as a respected artist of his generation.
A Legacy as Teacher and Artist
Beyond his own artistic production, Eleuterio Pagliano made a lasting contribution to Italian art as an educator. He became a teacher, likely at the Brera Academy or in a private capacity, and guided a number of students who would go on to achieve their own renown. His teaching methods, as suggested by the source material, emphasized "life study," encouraging students to observe directly from nature and life, a practice central to realist and impressionist tendencies that were gaining ground. He also reportedly had students copy from ancient and Renaissance sculptures, ensuring a solid grounding in classical forms, even as his own art embraced Romanticism.
Among his most notable pupils was Pompeo Mariani (1857-1927). Mariani became a highly successful painter, known for his elegant genre scenes, portraits, and, after travels to Egypt (perhaps inspired by Pagliano's connection with the Khedive), Orientalist subjects, as well as seascapes and landscapes. Pagliano's guidance in life studies was crucial in shaping Mariani's early development.
Other students mentioned include Sparta Velo (the name "Spartaco Vela," a sculptor, is more common, but the source specifies "Sparta Velo" as a painter student of Pagliano) and Uberto Dell’Orto (1848-1895), who became known for his landscape and animal paintings. Pagliano's role as a mentor highlights his commitment to fostering the next generation of Italian artists, passing on his knowledge and passion.
Despite his contributions and contemporary recognition, Pagliano's fame, like that of some other Risorgimento painters, perhaps somewhat faded in the early 20th century as new artistic movements like Futurism came to dominate the Italian avant-garde. However, his work has since been re-evaluated, and he is recognized for his artistic skill and his important role in visually chronicling one of the most pivotal periods in Italian history. A memorial exhibition held in Milan after his death in 1903 helped to solidify his legacy.
Conclusion: The Enduring Resonance of a Patriot Painter
Eleuterio Pagliano was more than just a skilled painter and etcher; he was an artist deeply embedded in the historical and cultural fabric of his nation's formation. His life journey from a Neoclassical student to a Romantic history painter and an active soldier of the Risorgimento reflects the profound transformations of 19th-century Italy. His canvases and prints are not mere illustrations of historical events but are imbued with the passion, heroism, and sacrifice that defined the era.
Influenced by masters like Francesco Hayez and a contemporary of figures like Tranquillo Cremona and the Induno brothers, Pagliano carved out his own distinct voice. He successfully navigated the demands of large-scale historical compositions, intimate etchings, and public murals, demonstrating a remarkable versatility. His dedication to depicting the struggles and triumphs of Italian unification provided a visual touchstone for national identity, while his role as a teacher ensured that his artistic principles and dedication to life study were passed on to a new generation, including talents like Pompeo Mariani.
Today, Eleuterio Pagliano's works are housed in various Italian museums and private collections, serving as vital documents of a nation's birth and as testaments to an artist who passionately believed in the power of art to reflect and shape the human experience. His legacy endures in the dramatic scenes of battle, the solemn memorials to fallen heroes, and the vibrant spirit of patriotism that animates his art, securing his place as a significant contributor to the rich heritage of Italian Romanticism.
