Jakob Philippe Hackert (1737–1807) stands as a pivotal figure in the landscape of 18th-century European art. A German painter of considerable renown, he carved an illustrious career primarily in Italy, where his meticulous and often idealized depictions of nature captivated a distinguished clientele, including royalty and the intellectual elite. Hackert's work, positioned at the confluence of late Baroque, Neoclassicism, and burgeoning Romantic sensibilities, offers a fascinating window into the artistic currents of his time. His dedication to topographical accuracy, combined with a poetic appreciation for the natural world, secured his place as one of the most sought-after landscape artists of his era.
Early Life and Artistic Foundations
Born in Prenzlau, in the Uckermark region of Prussia-Brandenburg (now part of Poland), on September 15, 1737, Jakob Philippe Hackert was immersed in an artistic environment from a young age. His father, Philipp Hackert, was a portrait and animal painter, providing his son with his initial instruction in the rudiments of art. His uncle, Johann Gottlieb Hackert, was also a painter, further nurturing the young Jakob's burgeoning talent. This familial grounding in artistic practice undoubtedly shaped his early development and instilled a disciplined approach to his craft.
Seeking formal training, Hackert moved to Berlin in 1753 (some sources state 1758) to study at the Prussian Academy of Arts (Akademie der Künste). There, he came under the tutelage of Blaise Nicolas Le Sueur, a French painter who served as the director of the Academy. Le Sueur, himself a student of the Rococo master François Lemoyne, imparted to Hackert a style rooted in the Dutch landscape tradition, albeit filtered through a French academic lens. This education emphasized clarity, careful composition, and an appreciation for the atmospheric qualities of landscape, elements that would remain hallmarks of Hackert's mature style.
Formative Travels and Broadening Horizons
Like many aspiring artists of his generation, Hackert understood the importance of travel for artistic and intellectual growth. His early journeys took him to Stralsund and the island of Rügen in Swedish Pomerania, where he painted for Adolf Friedrich von Olthof. These initial excursions allowed him to hone his skills in depicting varied terrains and coastal scenes.
In 1765, Hackert embarked on a more extensive journey, traveling to Paris with the Swiss artist Balthasar Anton Dunker. The French capital was a vibrant artistic hub, and Hackert's time there proved influential. He encountered the work of leading French landscape painters, most notably Claude Joseph Vernet, whose dramatic seascapes and harbor scenes, often imbued with a sense of the sublime, made a lasting impression. Hackert also associated with the German-born engraver Jean-Georges Wille, a prominent figure in Parisian art circles. It was during this period that he began to refine his approach to landscape, absorbing the elegance and technical sophistication of French art.
His travels continued to Italy, the ultimate destination for artists seeking to study classical antiquity and the masterpieces of the Renaissance and Baroque. He arrived in Rome in 1768, accompanied by his brother Johann Gottlieb Hackert, who would often assist him as an engraver and sometimes collaborator. Italy, with its rich historical associations, diverse landscapes, and luminous light, was to become Hackert's adopted homeland and the primary inspiration for his art.
The Italian Zenith: Naples and Rome
Hackert's arrival in Italy marked the beginning of the most productive and celebrated phase of his career. He quickly established himself in Rome, a city teeming with international artists and wealthy patrons on the Grand Tour. His meticulously rendered views of the Roman Campagna, ancient ruins, and picturesque waterfalls found an appreciative audience. He formed connections with other artists active in Italy, such as the French painter Antoine François Court.
In 1770, he undertook a significant journey to Naples and Sicily with his patron, the British connoisseur and collector Richard Payne Knight. The landscapes of Southern Italy, particularly the dramatic coastal scenery and the ever-present Vesuvius, provided Hackert with a wealth of new subjects. His series of paintings depicting Sicilian landscapes for Knight further enhanced his reputation.
The allure of Naples, with its stunning bay, vibrant culture, and royal court, proved irresistible. In 1786, Hackert was appointed court painter to King Ferdinand IV of Naples (also Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies). This prestigious position provided him with a steady stream of commissions and a prominent platform. He was tasked with documenting the kingdom's landscapes, royal hunts, and naval reviews. His studio in Naples became a focal point for artists and visitors.
One of Hackert's most famous commissions from this period was a series of paintings depicting the ports of the Kingdom of Naples. These works, characterized by their topographical accuracy and lively depiction of maritime activity, are exemplary of his skill in capturing the specific character of a location. His paintings of Vesuvius, particularly its eruptions, were also highly sought after, tapping into the era's fascination with the sublime power of nature. He witnessed the eruption of 1774, an experience that profoundly influenced his depictions of the volcano.
During his Neapolitan period, Hackert enjoyed immense success. His patrons included not only the Neapolitan royalty but also prominent European figures such as the Russian diplomat and art collector Count Ivan Shuvalov, and Catherine the Great of Russia, for whom he painted a series depicting the Russian naval victory at Chesma.
Artistic Style, Meticulous Method, and Techniques
Jakob Philippe Hackert's artistic style is a distinctive blend of Neoclassical clarity and an almost scientific naturalism, often infused with a subtle romantic sensibility. He was deeply influenced by 17th-century Dutch Italianate landscape painters and, most significantly, by the French Baroque master Claude Lorrain. From Lorrain, Hackert adopted the principles of idealized landscape composition, with carefully balanced elements, serene atmospheres, and often a golden, harmonious light. However, Hackert distinguished himself by a greater emphasis on topographical accuracy and detailed observation.
His method was painstaking. Before committing a scene to canvas, Hackert would spend considerable time observing his subject, making numerous sketches and notes. This almost scientific approach to studying nature allowed him to capture the specific details of flora, fauna, geological formations, and atmospheric conditions with remarkable precision. This meticulousness extended to the depiction of light and its effects on the landscape, a quality highly praised by his contemporaries.
While his landscapes often present an ordered and harmonious view of nature, in line with Neoclassical ideals, they also convey a genuine appreciation for the beauty and diversity of the natural world. His depictions of specific locations, such as the waterfalls at Tivoli or the coastline near Naples, are rendered with such accuracy that they often serve as valuable historical records of the sites.
Hackert was also an innovator in terms of technique. He worked proficiently in both oil and gouache, often using watercolor for preparatory studies. His oil paintings are characterized by a smooth finish, clear colors, and a fine attention to detail. He was known for his ability to render complex textures, from the roughness of rocks to the delicacy of foliage and the transparency of water. He even wrote a treatise on the use of yellow pigments in oil painting, demonstrating his technical curiosity and expertise.
His friendship with the German polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, which began in Naples in 1787, was particularly significant. Goethe, who was deeply interested in art and science, admired Hackert's disciplined approach to landscape painting and his profound knowledge of nature. Goethe even took drawing lessons from Hackert and later, after the painter's death, wrote his biography, "Philipp Hackert: Biographische Skizze, meist nach dessen eigenen Aufsätzen entworfen" (1811), which remains a key source of information about the artist's life and work. This friendship underscores the intellectual environment in which Hackert operated, where art and scientific inquiry often intersected.
Key Works and Their Significance
Hackert's extensive oeuvre includes a wide range of landscapes, from tranquil pastoral scenes to dramatic depictions of natural phenomena. Several works stand out as particularly representative of his style and achievements.
_The Eruption of Vesuvius_ (e.g., 1779 version): Hackert painted Vesuvius numerous times, both in states of quiescence and eruption. These works capture the awesome power of the volcano, often contrasting the fiery spectacle with the serene beauty of the Bay of Naples. They exemplify the 18th-century fascination with the sublime and Hackert's ability to combine dramatic subject matter with precise observation.
_View of the Port of Naples_ (Veduta del Porto di Napoli): This, and similar harbor scenes, showcases Hackert's mastery in depicting complex maritime environments. These paintings are filled with meticulously rendered ships, bustling figures, and recognizable architectural landmarks, all bathed in a clear, luminous light. They are valuable topographical records as well as accomplished works of art.
_Harvest at Carditello_ (La Caccia ai Cinghiali a Carditello): Now housed in the Museo di Capodimonte in Naples, this painting depicts a royal hunt at the Carditello estate. It combines landscape, animal painting, and genre elements, demonstrating Hackert's versatility. The scene is rendered with his characteristic attention to detail and a lively sense of movement.
_The Waterfalls at Tivoli_ (e.g., _The Great Cascade at Tivoli_): The cascades at Tivoli were a popular subject for landscape painters. Hackert's versions are celebrated for their accurate depiction of the dramatic rock formations and the powerful rush of water, often framed by classical ruins or picturesque vegetation. These works highlight his ability to capture both the grandeur and the specific character of a location.
_Lake Avernus_ (Lago d'Averno): This painting, depicting the volcanic crater lake near Naples, is a fine example of Hackert's more tranquil and idyllic landscapes. It evokes the classical associations of the site (believed to be an entrance to the underworld) while celebrating its serene natural beauty. The careful rendering of light and atmosphere creates a poetic and contemplative mood.
_An Arcadian Italianate Landscape, Rome_ (1776): This work, painted during his Roman period, reflects the influence of Claude Lorrain in its idealized composition and pastoral theme. Shepherds and their flocks inhabit a serene landscape, with classical ruins hinting at a timeless, Arcadian past.
_The Villa of Maecenas and the Waterfalls of Tivoli_ (often titled with variations, including _The Villa of Menecrates_): This subject, which he painted multiple times, allowed Hackert to combine architectural elements with dramatic natural scenery. The juxtaposition of ancient structures with the dynamic force of the waterfalls created a powerful visual and intellectual appeal for his audience. One version is in the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.
These works, among many others, demonstrate Hackert's skill in capturing the diverse beauty of the Italian landscape, his technical mastery, and his ability to satisfy the tastes of a discerning international clientele. His paintings were widely disseminated through engravings, often made by his brother Johann Gottlieb, further extending his influence.
Contemporaries and the Artistic Milieu
Jakob Philippe Hackert operated within a rich and dynamic artistic milieu, interacting with and responding to a diverse array of contemporary painters. His career spanned a period of significant stylistic transition, from the late Baroque and Rococo to the rise of Neoclassicism and the early stirrings of Romanticism.
In Paris, his encounter with Claude Joseph Vernet (1714–1789) was formative. Vernet's popular and influential seascapes and landscapes, with their dramatic lighting and atmospheric effects, provided a model for Hackert, particularly in his depictions of harbors and coastal scenes.
The enduring influence of Claude Lorrain (1600–1682) and Nicolas Poussin (1594–1665) on landscape painting was pervasive throughout the 18th century. Hackert, like many of his contemporaries, deeply admired Lorrain's idealized compositions and luminous atmospheres, striving to emulate his classical harmony while infusing his own work with greater topographical specificity.
In Italy, Hackert was part of a vibrant community of native and foreign artists. He would have been aware of the work of veduta painters like Giovanni Paolo Panini (1691–1765), known for his views of Rome and its ancient ruins, and Gaspar van Wittel (Vanvitelli) (1653–1736), an earlier Dutch pioneer of Italian view painting. While Hackert's style differed, the demand for accurate and picturesque views of Italy was a common thread.
Among his German-speaking contemporaries active in Italy were figures like Anton Raphael Mengs (1728–1779), a leading proponent of Neoclassicism, and Angelica Kauffman (1741–1807), a highly successful history painter and portraitist. While their primary genres differed, they were part of the same intellectual and artistic circles in Rome. Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein (1751–1829), famous for his portrait of Goethe in the Roman Campagna, was another prominent German artist in Italy during Hackert's time.
Hackert's relationship with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) was particularly significant. Goethe's interest in Hackert's meticulous observation of nature and his attempts to learn drawing from the master highlight the cross-pollination of artistic and scientific thought during this period.
Other landscape painters active in Italy whose work might have provided points of comparison or contrast include Jacob More (1740–1793), a Scottish artist known for his Claudian landscapes, and Thomas Jones (1742–1803), a Welsh painter whose small, direct oil sketches of Naples and Rome anticipated later plein-air practices.
Within Naples, Hackert would have known local artists such as Salvatore Fergola (1799–1874), though Fergola belongs to a slightly later generation, he continued the tradition of Neapolitan landscape painting. Vincenzo Aloja (active late 18th-early 19th century) was another Neapolitan painter and engraver active during Hackert's time.
The Polish-Austrian painter Michael Wutki (or Wuttky, 1739–1822/23), also active in Italy, shared Hackert's interest in dramatic natural phenomena, particularly volcanic eruptions, and their paths likely crossed. Similarly, Christopher Kniep (Christoph Heinrich Kniep, 1755–1825), a German draftsman who accompanied Goethe on his Sicilian journey, was influenced by Hackert's approach to landscape.
The German painter Carl August Reinhart (Johann Christian Reinhart, 1761–1847), though younger, became a leading figure in German-Roman landscape painting, developing a heroic classical style that built upon, yet also diverged from, the tradition Hackert represented.
Hackert's engagement with these and other artists, whether through direct interaction, shared patronage, or awareness of their work, shaped his artistic development and positioned him as a central figure in the European landscape painting tradition of his time.
Pupils, Followers, and Lasting Influence
Jakob Philippe Hackert was not only a prolific and successful painter but also an influential teacher. His studio in Naples attracted a number of aspiring artists, and his methodical approach to landscape painting provided a clear model for his students.
His most notable pupils and followers included several of his own brothers. Johann Gottlieb Hackert (1744–1773) was a talented animal painter and engraver who often collaborated with Jakob Philippe, engraving many of his landscape compositions for wider distribution. The early death of Johann Gottlieb was a significant loss. Other brothers, such as Georg Abraham Hackert, also pursued artistic careers, likely benefiting from Jakob Philippe's guidance and reputation.
Among other artists who studied with or were significantly influenced by Hackert were:
Christopher Kniep (Christoph Heinrich Kniep): As mentioned, Kniep, who accompanied Goethe, was deeply impressed by Hackert's work in Rome and Naples. His drawings show a similar attention to detail and classical composition.
Michael Wutki (Wuttky): While a contemporary with his own distinct style, Wutki's dramatic depictions of Vesuvius and Italian grottoes share thematic concerns with Hackert and suggest a mutual awareness, if not direct tutelage.
Vincenzo Aloja: This Neapolitan artist and engraver was active during Hackert's Neapolitan period and likely moved within his circle, producing works that reflected the prevailing taste for picturesque and topographical views.
Johann Jakob Haid: An engraver who was a student of Hackert, contributing to the dissemination of his imagery.
Hackert's influence extended beyond his direct pupils. His success and the widespread popularity of his landscapes helped to elevate the genre of topographical view painting. His emphasis on accuracy and detailed observation, combined with an underlying classical structure, provided a bridge between the idealized landscapes of the 17th century and the more naturalistic and romantic approaches that would develop in the 19th century.
Artists like Joseph Anton Koch (1768–1839) and Johann Christian Reinhart, leading figures of the next generation of German-Roman landscape painters, would have been well aware of Hackert's work. While they developed their own distinct heroic and romantic styles, Hackert's precedent in establishing a successful career as a German landscape painter in Italy was significant.
The detailed nature of his work also appealed to the scientific and empirical spirit of the Enlightenment. His paintings were not just aesthetically pleasing; they were also seen as valuable records of specific places and natural phenomena. This aspect of his work resonated with patrons who were interested in geography, botany, and geology.
Goethe's biography of Hackert played a crucial role in cementing his posthumous reputation, particularly in Germany. It presented Hackert as a diligent, observant, and technically skilled artist, a model of artistic professionalism.
Through his numerous paintings, the engravings made after them, and his teaching, Jakob Philippe Hackert left a significant mark on European landscape painting. He helped to popularize Italian scenery throughout Europe and set a high standard for topographical accuracy and artistic refinement in the genre.
Later Years, Flight from Naples, and Legacy
The political turmoil that swept through Europe at the end of the 18th century directly impacted Hackert's life and career. The French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars brought instability to Italy. In 1799, when French troops invaded Naples and established the Parthenopean Republic, King Ferdinand IV was forced to flee to Sicily. Hackert, as a prominent court painter associated with the Bourbon monarchy, found his position precarious.
He lost much of his property during the revolutionary upheaval and decided to leave Naples. He initially sought refuge in Livorno and Pisa before eventually settling in Florence. Despite the disruption, he continued to paint, finding new patrons and adapting to his changed circumstances. His later works, while still demonstrating his characteristic skill, sometimes reflect a more subdued or melancholic mood.
In Florence, he purchased a small estate in San Pietro di Careggi, near the city, where he spent his final years. He continued to correspond with Goethe, who remained a loyal friend and admirer. Jakob Philippe Hackert died in San Pietro di Careggi on April 28, 1807, at the age of 69.
His legacy is multifaceted. As a leading exponent of Neoclassical landscape painting, he brought a new level of topographical accuracy and naturalistic detail to the genre. His works provide invaluable visual records of 18th-century Italy, capturing its landscapes, cities, and cultural life with remarkable precision. He was a master technician, whose skill in rendering light, texture, and atmosphere was widely admired.
Hackert's influence was felt by a generation of landscape painters, both German and Italian. His success demonstrated the potential for artists to achieve international fame and fortune through the depiction of landscape. The numerous engravings made after his paintings ensured that his imagery reached a wide audience, shaping popular perceptions of Italy across Europe.
Today, Hackert's paintings are held in major museums and private collections worldwide, including the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, the Museo di Capodimonte in Naples, the National Gallery in Berlin, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and the Louvre in Paris. Exhibitions of his work, such as the comprehensive show at the Hamburger Kunsthalle and the Klassik Stiftung Weimar in 2008, continue to affirm his importance in the history of European art.
Conclusion: An Enduring Vision of Nature and Place
Jakob Philippe Hackert remains a significant figure in 18th-century art, a bridge between the idealized landscapes of the past and the emerging sensibilities of the modern era. His dedication to observing and meticulously recording the natural world, combined with his classical sense of order and harmony, resulted in a body of work that is both beautiful and historically informative. As court painter in Naples, he captured the splendor of the Bourbon kingdom, while his independent works celebrated the timeless allure of the Italian landscape. His friendship with Goethe and his broader engagement with the intellectual currents of the Enlightenment further underscore his importance. More than two centuries after his death, Hackert's paintings continue to transport viewers to the sunlit landscapes of 18th-century Italy, testaments to an artist who masterfully balanced truth to nature with artistic vision.
