The late eighteenth century was a period of profound maritime significance for Great Britain. Its burgeoning empire, global trade, and frequent naval conflicts placed ships and the sea at the forefront of national consciousness. It was within this milieu that a distinct school of British marine painting flourished, capturing the grandeur, peril, and patriotic fervor associated with naval power. Among the notable practitioners of this genre was Robert Cleveley, an artist whose life and work were intrinsically linked to the Royal Navy, providing a vivid and detailed chronicle of its activities.
Early Life and Familial Artistic Roots
Robert Cleveley was born in Deptford, London, in 1747. Deptford itself was a significant maritime hub, home to a major Royal Dockyard. This environment undoubtedly shaped his early perceptions and interests. He was one of twin sons born to John Cleveley the Elder (c.1712–1777), who was himself a painter and, significantly, a shipwright or joiner working in the dockyard. This practical connection to shipbuilding within the family provided an invaluable foundation for understanding the complex structures of naval vessels, a knowledge that would later become a hallmark of Robert's and his brothers' art.
The Cleveley family was, in essence, an artistic dynasty. Robert's twin brother, John Cleveley the Younger (1747–1786), also became a celebrated marine painter. Another brother, James Cleveley, served as a carpenter aboard Captain James Cook's final voyage on HMS Resolution. The artistic inclinations of the family, coupled with their direct involvement in maritime trades, created a unique crucible for the development of their talents. It is highly probable that Robert received his initial artistic training from his father, absorbing not only the techniques of drawing and painting but also an intimate familiarity with ship design and nautical life.
While direct records of Robert Cleveley's earliest formal training are sparse, the influence of his father, John the Elder, is undeniable. The elder Cleveley was known for his detailed depictions of ship launches and dockyard scenes, often characterized by a certain charming naivety but also a strong sense of observation. This emphasis on accuracy and documentary value was a trait that Robert would later refine and elevate in his own work.
Naval Service: A Foundation for Artistic Authenticity
Unlike some marine painters who observed naval life from a distance, Robert Cleveley experienced it firsthand. He initially followed a path connected to the dockyards, but a reported dislike for the practicalities of such labor, specifically an aversion to wearing gloves, may have steered him towards a different maritime career. Around 1770, he joined the Royal Navy, serving as a volunteer and later as a clerk under Captain William Locker, who later became Lieutenant-Governor of Greenwich Hospital and a patron of artists like Horatio Nelson. He also served under Captain Constantine John Phipps (later Lord Mulgrave) on his 1773 expedition towards the North Pole aboard HMS Racehorse, an experience that would have exposed him to diverse and dramatic seascapes.
His naval service was not merely a youthful adventure; it became a defining aspect of his identity and artistic practice. He rose to the position of purser and, at times, acting captain. This immersion in naval life provided him with an unparalleled understanding of ship handling, fleet maneuvers, the effects of weather on the sea and vessels, and the dramatic intensity of naval engagements. When he exhibited his works, he often did so under the name "Robert Cleveley of the Royal Navy," underscoring the authenticity derived from his personal experience. This direct knowledge lent a conviction and accuracy to his paintings that resonated with a public deeply invested in naval affairs.
This period in the Navy was crucial. It allowed him to sketch and observe, gathering the raw material that would inform his later studio productions. The discipline and observational skills honed during his service were directly transferable to the meticulous demands of marine painting, where accuracy in rigging, hull design, and flag signaling was highly prized.
Artistic Development and Style
Robert Cleveley's primary medium was watercolour, often heightened with pen and ink, a technique well-suited to capturing the translucency of water and the subtleties of atmospheric effects. His style is characterized by a high degree of realism and meticulous attention to detail, particularly in the rendering of ships. He possessed a draftsman's precision, ensuring that every rope, spar, and gunport was accurately depicted. This technical accuracy was combined with a strong sense of composition and an ability to convey the dynamism of naval actions or the solemnity of ceremonial occasions.
His early works show the influence of his father and brother, John the Younger. However, Robert developed his own distinct approach. While John the Younger was perhaps more versatile, known for his topographical views from Cook's voyages (often worked up from sketches by others, including his brother James), Robert's focus remained more steadfastly on naval subjects, particularly battles and reviews. Compared to some of his contemporaries, Robert's palette could be somewhat restrained, but his skillful use of light and shadow, and his ability to depict the texture of smoke, water, and sail, brought his scenes to life.
He excelled in portraying the grandeur of the Royal Navy's set-piece events, such as fleet reviews, and the dramatic intensity of sea battles. His understanding of naval tactics and ship capabilities allowed him to create convincing and engaging narratives within his paintings. The human element, though often small in scale compared to the towering ships, was always present, reminding the viewer of the men who sailed and fought these magnificent vessels.
Key Patrons and Royal Appointments
Robert Cleveley's talent did not go unnoticed by influential figures. His skill and his naval background made him a natural choice for royal patronage. He was appointed Marine Draftsman to the Duke of Clarence (later King William IV, the "Sailor King"), a significant honor that recognized his expertise. Subsequently, he also held the prestigious title of Marine Painter to the Prince of Wales (later King George IV). These appointments not only provided him with regular commissions but also cemented his status as one of the leading marine artists of his day.
Such patronage was vital. It provided access to important events, such as royal reviews of the fleet, and ensured that his work was seen by a discerning and influential audience. The commissions often involved documenting specific naval victories or ceremonial occasions, contributing to the national narrative of British maritime supremacy. For an artist specializing in naval subjects, royal approval was a significant endorsement of both artistic merit and patriotic sentiment.
Major Works and Thematic Concerns
Robert Cleveley's oeuvre includes a range of subjects, from specific ship portraits to expansive battle scenes and depictions of ceremonial naval events. Among his most celebrated works is "View of the Fleet at Spithead Saluting His Majesty George III at Review in 1793." This painting, now in the collection of the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, exemplifies his skill in handling complex compositions involving numerous vessels, accurately rendering the details of the ships and the pageantry of the occasion. The work captures a moment of national pride and naval strength, with the monarch himself present to inspect his fleet.
Another significant work, or series of works, relates to the famous naval victory known as "The Glorious First of June" in 1794, where Admiral Lord Howe's fleet defeated a French fleet. Cleveley produced several views of this engagement, showcasing his ability to depict the chaos and drama of battle while maintaining clarity in the disposition of the opposing forces. These paintings, such as "The Glorious First of June, 1794," were not just artistic endeavors but also important historical documents, celebrating a key moment in the long wars against Revolutionary and Napoleonic France. His depictions of such battles were popular, often reproduced as engravings, making his imagery accessible to a wider public.
Beyond these grand themes, Cleveley also painted scenes of more everyday naval life, ship launches, and coastal views, always with his characteristic attention to detail and understanding of the maritime environment. His works often served a commemorative purpose, immortalizing ships, men, and events for posterity.
The Cleveley Family: An Artistic Constellation
Robert Cleveley did not operate in an artistic vacuum. He was part of a remarkable family of marine artists. His father, John Cleveley the Elder, laid the groundwork with his dockyard scenes and ship portraits. The elder Cleveley's work, while perhaps less polished than that of his sons, possessed a directness and authenticity that came from his own profession as a shipwright. He exhibited at the Free Society of Artists and the Royal Academy, establishing the family's presence in the London art world.
Robert's twin brother, John Cleveley the Younger, achieved considerable fame, perhaps even more so than Robert during their lifetimes. John the Younger was an accomplished watercolourist and was appointed as a draftsman to several expeditions, most notably accompanying Sir Joseph Banks on a voyage to Iceland in 1772, and he worked up drawings from Captain Cook's third voyage, based on sketches made by his brother James Cleveley, who was the carpenter on the Resolution. John the Younger's style was often more picturesque, and he was adept at topographical views as well as marine subjects. He studied under Paul Sandby, a leading watercolourist and drawing master at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, which likely refined his technique and broadened his artistic horizons.
The works of Robert and John the Younger are sometimes confused, given their shared subject matter and familial connection. However, art historians generally distinguish Robert's style by its often more robust and direct approach to naval actions, reflecting his own service experience, whereas John the Younger's work could exhibit a greater delicacy and a broader range of subjects, including exotic landscapes. Together, the Cleveleys made a significant contribution to British marine art, each bringing their unique perspectives and skills to the genre.
The Context of 18th-Century British Marine Painting
To fully appreciate Robert Cleveley's contribution, it is essential to understand the broader context of British marine painting in the 18th century. The genre had its roots in the Dutch Golden Age, with artists like Willem van de Velde the Elder and Willem van de Velde the Younger, who came to England in the late 17th century and profoundly influenced the development of marine art in Britain. Their dramatic and meticulously detailed portrayals of sea battles and shipping set a high standard.
By the mid-18th century, a native British school of marine painters began to emerge. Artists like Peter Monamy and Samuel Scott were among the early pioneers. Scott, particularly, known as the "English Canaletto" for his views of the Thames, also produced significant naval scenes. As the century progressed, and Britain's naval power grew, so did the demand for marine art.
Robert Cleveley's contemporaries included several other distinguished marine painters. Dominic Serres the Elder, a Gascon by birth who settled in England, became Marine Painter to King George III and was a founding member of the Royal Academy. Nicholas Pocock, like Cleveley, had firsthand experience of the sea, having been a sea captain before dedicating himself to painting. His works are known for their accuracy and dramatic flair. Charles Brooking, though his career was tragically short (he died in 1759, when Cleveley was still a boy), produced exquisite works that influenced later artists. Thomas Luny was another prolific contemporary, painting a vast number of naval scenes despite suffering from paralysis in his later years. Francis Swaine and Richard Paton also made significant contributions to the genre during this period.
The establishment of the Royal Academy of Arts in 1768 provided a crucial venue for artists, including marine painters, to exhibit their work and gain recognition. Cleveley himself began exhibiting at the Royal Academy in 1780 and continued to do so for many years. His participation in these exhibitions placed him firmly within the mainstream of the British art world. The patriotic subject matter of many marine paintings, celebrating naval victories and the strength of the fleet, resonated strongly with the public and with patrons during a period of intense national rivalry and colonial expansion. Artists like Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg, though not exclusively a marine painter, also contributed to this nationalistic fervor with grand depictions of naval battles, such as his famous painting of "The Glorious First of June."
Travels, Expeditions, and Expanding Horizons
Robert Cleveley's naval service naturally involved travel. His participation in Captain Constantine Phipps's 1773 Arctic expedition aboard HMS Racehorse was a significant early experience. The aim of this voyage was to discover a northern sea route to India. While unsuccessful in its primary objective, the expedition ventured further north than any previous one, providing artists like Cleveley with exposure to the dramatic and unfamiliar landscapes of the Arctic. Sketches made during such voyages would have been invaluable source material.
While Robert himself did not sail with Captain Cook, the Cleveley family was connected to these voyages of discovery through his brother, James, the carpenter on Cook's third voyage. John Cleveley the Younger famously produced aquatints based on James's on-the-spot sketches from this voyage, depicting scenes in the Pacific. It is plausible that Robert, too, had access to these sketches and the accounts of returning sailors, broadening his imaginative and geographical scope, even if his primary focus remained on the activities of the Royal Navy in European waters and the Atlantic.
The era was one of exploration and expanding global knowledge, and marine artists played a role in visually documenting these new frontiers and the vessels that reached them. Even if Robert Cleveley's own travels were more circumscribed than those of expedition artists, the spirit of discovery and the importance of accurate charting and depiction were central to the maritime world he inhabited.
Later Career, Exhibitions, and Legacy
Robert Cleveley continued to paint and exhibit throughout his life. He was a regular contributor to the Royal Academy exhibitions from 1780 until 1803. He also exhibited at the Free Society of Artists and the Society of Artists. His consistent presence at these major London exhibitions ensured that his work remained visible and that he was recognized as a significant figure in the field of marine art.
His works were frequently engraved by prominent printmakers of the time, such as Francis Jukes and Robert Pollard. This dissemination through prints greatly expanded the reach of his imagery, making his depictions of naval battles and royal occasions accessible to a much wider audience than could view the original paintings. These engravings played an important role in shaping public perception of naval events and celebrating national heroes.
Robert Cleveley died in Dover on June 28, 1809. He left behind a substantial body of work that serves as an important visual record of the Royal Navy during a crucial period of its history. His paintings are valued not only for their artistic merit but also for their historical accuracy and the insight they provide into the ships, seamanship, and spirit of the age.
His legacy lies in his contribution to the tradition of British marine painting. He, along with his father and brother, helped to establish a distinctively British approach to the genre, characterized by careful observation, technical precision, and a focus on the narrative and documentary aspects of naval life. While later artists like J.M.W. Turner would revolutionize marine painting with a more romantic and expressive approach to the sea's power and sublimity, Cleveley and his contemporaries laid a vital foundation. Their work celebrated the tangible achievements of the navy and reflected the nation's pride in its maritime prowess. Artists such as Thomas Whitcombe and, later, Clarkson Stanfield continued to develop the traditions of marine painting, building on the legacy of artists like Cleveley.
Conclusion: A Seafaring Artist's Enduring Record
Robert Cleveley stands as a significant figure in the history of British marine art. His personal experience in the Royal Navy lent an undeniable authenticity to his depictions of ships and sea battles. As Marine Draftsman to the Duke of Clarence and Marine Painter to the Prince of Wales, he enjoyed royal patronage and documented key moments in British naval history. His meticulous watercolours, characterized by their detailed accuracy and strong compositions, captured both the grandeur of naval ceremonies and the dramatic intensity of conflict at sea.
Working alongside his talented father, John Cleveley the Elder, and his equally renowned twin brother, John Cleveley the Younger, Robert contributed to a family legacy that enriched the marine genre. In an era when Britain's identity and security were inextricably linked to its naval strength, Robert Cleveley's art provided a vivid and enduring chronicle of this maritime power. His works continue to be valued by collectors and historians alike, offering a window into the world of the Georgian navy and the artists who dedicated their talents to its portrayal. His contribution, alongside contemporaries like Nicholas Pocock, Dominic Serres, and Thomas Luny, helped to define a golden age of British marine painting.
