Hjalmar Eilif Emanuel Peterssen stands as a significant figure in the golden age of Norwegian painting, a versatile artist whose career navigated the currents of late 19th and early 20th-century European art. Born in Christiania (now Oslo) on September 4, 1852, and passing away in Lysaker, near Oslo, on December 29, 1928, Peterssen's life and work reflect the dynamic shifts from academic realism to the burgeoning influences of Impressionism and a distinctly Nordic romanticism. His contributions spanned historical paintings, evocative landscapes, insightful portraits, and even decorative arts, leaving an indelible mark on Norway's cultural heritage.
Early Life and Artistic Awakening
Eilif Peterssen's artistic inclinations were nurtured from a young age. His mother, Anne Marie Peterssen (née Isaacs), was herself a painter, providing an environment where creative pursuits were encouraged. He commenced his formal art education in his hometown at the Royal School of Drawing under painters Knud Bergslien and Morten Müller in 1869. This foundational training instilled in him the discipline and technical skills that would underpin his later stylistic explorations.
Seeking broader horizons, Peterssen, like many aspiring Scandinavian artists of his generation, looked beyond Norway's borders. In 1871, he briefly studied under the history painter Peter Nicolai Arbo in Christiania before venturing to Copenhagen, where he spent a short period at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. However, it was Germany that would provide the next crucial stage of his development.
The Karlsruhe and Munich Years: Embracing Realism
In 1873, Peterssen moved to Karlsruhe, Germany, where he studied under Ludwig des Coudres at the Grand Ducal Baden Art School. This period exposed him to the prevailing trends in German academic art. Later that same year, he relocated to Munich, a major artistic hub in Europe, and enrolled at the prestigious Academy of Fine Arts. Here, he became a student of Wilhelm von Diez, a leading figure of the Munich School.
The Munich School was characterized by its commitment to realism, often with a dark, tonal palette, and a penchant for historical and genre scenes. Under Diez's tutelage, Peterssen honed his skills in draughtsmanship, composition, and the depiction of historical narratives. This period was formative, and his early successes were deeply rooted in this academic tradition. He also formed connections with other Scandinavian artists in Munich, including Harriet Backer and Kitty Lange Kielland, who would become lifelong friends and colleagues.
One of Peterssen's most celebrated works from this era is Christian II Signing Torben Oxe's Death Warrant (1875-1876). This large-scale historical painting, executed with meticulous detail and dramatic intensity, depicts the Danish king condemning his advisor. The painting showcases Peterssen's mastery of academic techniques: the careful rendering of figures, the rich textures of fabrics, and the psychological tension conveyed through expression and gesture. It was a triumph, earning him considerable acclaim and establishing his reputation as a history painter of note. The work was acquired by the Verbindung für historische Kunst in Stuttgart before later finding its home in the National Gallery of Norway (now part of the National Museum).
Another significant work from his Munich period is The Death of Corfitz Ulfeldt (1878), further demonstrating his skill in historical drama. These paintings, while adhering to academic conventions, also hinted at a sensitivity to light and atmosphere that would become more pronounced in his later work.
Italian Sojourn and the Allure of Light
After his successes in Munich, Peterssen embarked on travels to Italy between 1878 and 1883, spending significant time in Rome and Florence. This experience was transformative. The brilliant Mediterranean light, the masterpieces of the Italian Renaissance, and the influence of the Venetian School, with its emphasis on color and light, began to subtly shift his artistic perspective. While in Italy, he continued to paint historical and religious subjects, such as Judith (1879) and The Flight into Egypt (1881).
During this period, he also began to explore landscape painting more seriously. A key work indicating this transition is Mountain Inn (also known as Inn Near the Mountains or Mountain Near Innsbruck), painted in 1877 during a trip to the Tyrol. While still retaining a degree of realism, this painting shows a greater interest in capturing the effects of natural light and atmosphere, foreshadowing his later engagement with Impressionism. The Italian light further encouraged this direction, leading to a brighter palette and a looser handling of paint in some of his works.
He also painted genre scenes and portraits in Italy, absorbing the local color and life. His time in Italy broadened his artistic vocabulary and prepared him for the stylistic innovations that were sweeping across Europe.
Return to Norway and the Embrace of Impressionism
Peterssen returned to Norway in the early 1880s, a period when Norwegian art was experiencing a vibrant awakening, often referred to as the "Golden Age." Artists were seeking to define a national artistic identity, drawing inspiration from their own landscapes and culture, while also engaging with international trends like Impressionism and Naturalism.
Peterssen became a central figure in this movement. He was particularly associated with the "Fleskum Summer" of 1886. This was a gathering of artists – including Christian Skredsvig, Harriet Backer, Kitty Kielland, Gerhard Munthe, and Erik Werenskiold – at Fleskum farm in Bærum, near Christiania. Here, they experimented with plein-air painting and the depiction of the specific qualities of Nordic light, particularly the evocative "blue hour" of summer evenings.
Peterssen's painting Summer Night (1886), created during this period, is a quintessential example of Norwegian Impressionism, or "mood painting" (stemningsmaleri). It captures the ethereal light and tranquil atmosphere of a Norwegian summer evening with a sensitivity that marked a departure from his earlier, more academic style. The brushwork is looser, the colors more nuanced, and the emphasis is on conveying a subjective experience of nature. Another work from this period, Midsummer Night (1886), similarly explores these themes.
His landscapes from this time, such as Mountain Scenery (1877, though perhaps reflecting later stylistic developments or an early foray) and later works like Coast in Moonlight (1898), demonstrate his profound connection to the Norwegian landscape. He masterfully depicted the fjords, mountains, and coastal scenes, often imbuing them with a lyrical, romantic quality. His work from this period often blended Impressionistic techniques with a deeper, almost spiritual engagement with nature, characteristic of National Romanticism.
Portraiture and Human Subjects
Alongside his landscapes and historical scenes, Eilif Peterssen was a highly sought-after portrait painter. He possessed a keen ability to capture not only the likeness but also the character and psychological depth of his sitters. His portraits are marked by their elegant compositions, refined technique, and sensitive portrayal of personality.
He painted numerous prominent figures of his time, including fellow artists like Harriet Backer, whose portrait he rendered with great insight. Other notable portraits include those of playwright Henrik Ibsen and composer Edvard Grieg, though his portrait of Ibsen is particularly well-known. His portrait of Alexander Kielland is another significant example.
His genre scenes often focused on everyday life and human emotion. Old Woman (1888) is a poignant depiction of age and contemplation, rendered with empathy and technical skill. På utik (Looking Out, or Seeking, 1889) captures a moment of quiet introspection, showcasing his ability to convey narrative and mood through subtle means. These works reveal his interest in human experience, complementing his grander historical themes and his atmospheric landscapes.
Decorative Arts and Later Career
Peterssen's artistic talents extended beyond easel painting. He was involved in decorative arts, most notably designing the lion motif for the Norwegian Royal Standard in 1905, following the dissolution of the union with Sweden. This design remains in use today and is a testament to his versatility. He also created designs for tapestries and stained glass, contributing to the broader artistic renewal in Norway that encompassed applied arts.
In his later career, Peterssen continued to evolve. While he maintained elements of his earlier styles, his work sometimes showed influences of Post-Impressionism and Symbolism. He remained a respected figure in the Norwegian art world, exhibiting regularly and receiving numerous accolades, including the prestigious Knight's Order from the Norwegian King.
He also played a role as an educator, influencing younger artists. For instance, the symbolist painter Harald Sohlberg was among those who received guidance from Peterssen, as well as from Harriet Backer and Erik Werenskiold, highlighting the interconnectedness of the Norwegian art scene.
Relationships and Artistic Milieu
Eilif Peterssen was an active participant in the cultural life of his time. His long-standing friendship with Kitty Kielland is well-documented through their correspondence, which reveals discussions about art, exhibitions, personal matters, and the challenges of an artistic career. In one letter, Peterssen mentioned declining a commission from Kielland for a landscape due to health concerns and a lack of inspiration, offering a glimpse into the artist's working life and vulnerabilities.
He was also close to Harriet Backer, another pioneering female artist in Norway. They supported each other's work, and both participated in significant international exhibitions, such as the Paris World's Fair of 1889, where Norwegian art made a strong impression.
His interactions with other contemporaries like Erik Werenskiold, Christian Skredsvig, and Gerhard Munthe, particularly during the Fleskum period, were crucial for the development of a distinctively Norwegian approach to modern painting. He was part of a generation that included other prominent Scandinavian artists such as the Danish Skagen Painters like P.S. Krøyer and Michael Ancher, the Swedish artists Anders Zorn and Carl Larsson, and fellow Norwegians like Frits Thaulow, known for his evocative depictions of water, and Christian Krohg, a leading figure in Norwegian realism and social commentary. Even the younger, more radical Edvard Munch emerged from this fertile artistic environment, though Munch would take Norwegian art in a more overtly Expressionist direction.
Peterssen also expressed opinions on his peers. Anecdotal evidence suggests he had views on artists like "Ross" (perhaps a misspelling or a less prominent figure) and the sculptor Stephan Sinding, whose artistic integrity Peterssen reportedly questioned at one point. These interactions paint a picture of a lively and sometimes competitive art world.
Personal Challenges and Artistic Integrity
Like many artists, Peterssen faced personal and professional challenges. His letters reveal periods of ill health and creative blocks. He sometimes worried about financial stability and the prospects of employment, even mentioning working in a theatre at one point to make ends meet. The support of his mother, Anne Marie, was acknowledged by him as crucial to his perseverance and success.
His artistic journey itself was one of constant evolution and, at times, perhaps internal conflict as he navigated different stylistic influences. The shift from the dark, detailed historicism of the Munich School to the lighter, more atmospheric concerns of Impressionism was significant. Works like Mountain Inn (1877) are often cited as pivotal, marking this transition and his growing interest in capturing the fleeting effects of light and nature directly. This evolution demonstrates his willingness to adapt and explore, rather than remaining confined to a single, established style.
Legacy and Lasting Influence
Eilif Peterssen died on December 29, 1928, in Lysaker, leaving behind a rich and varied body of work. He is remembered as one of Norway's foremost painters, a bridge between 19th-century academic traditions and the modern artistic currents that emerged at the turn of the 20th century.
His historical paintings, such as Christian II Signing Torben Oxe's Death Warrant, remain iconic examples of the genre in Norwegian art. His landscapes, particularly those from the Fleskum period like Summer Night, are celebrated for their lyrical beauty and their contribution to the development of Norwegian Impressionism and National Romanticism. His portraits are valued for their psychological insight and technical refinement.
Peterssen's ability to absorb diverse influences – from German Realism and Italian Renaissance art to French Impressionism – and synthesize them into a personal style that also resonated with Norwegian sensibilities is a key aspect of his legacy. He helped to shape a national school of painting that was both modern and deeply rooted in the Norwegian experience.
His works are prominently featured in the National Museum of Art, Architecture and Design in Oslo, as well as in other major Norwegian and international collections. Through his art, Eilif Peterssen not only chronicled historical events and captured the likenesses of his contemporaries but also conveyed the unique beauty and spirit of the Norwegian landscape, securing his place as a master in the pantheon of Scandinavian art. His journey reflects the broader artistic quest of his era: to find new ways of seeing and representing the world, while remaining true to both personal vision and cultural identity.
