Jean-François Millet, born October 4, 1814, in the rustic village of Gruchy, near Gréville-Hague in Normandy, and passing away on January 20, 1875, in Barbizon, stands as a monumental figure in the annals of 19th-century French art. His profound and empathetic depictions of peasant life carved a unique niche for him, positioning him as a pivotal member of the Barbizon School and a significant precursor to later movements, including Impressionism and Post-Impressionism. Millet's art, imbued with a solemn dignity and a deep connection to the earth, transcended mere representation, offering a spiritual and often starkly realistic portrayal of rural existence that resonated deeply with some contemporaries and profoundly influenced generations of artists to come.
Humble Beginnings and Formative Influences
Millet's origins were deeply rooted in the agrarian landscape he would later immortalize. Born into a peasant family, his early life was one of toil and close observation of the rhythms of nature and agricultural labor. His parents, Jean-Louis-Nicolas and Aimée-Henriette-Adélaïde Henry Millet, though of modest means, fostered an environment where intellectual and spiritual pursuits were valued. It was his grandmother, Louise Jumelin, a devout woman, who played a particularly significant role in his moral and religious upbringing, instilling in him a sense of piety and a respect for the land that would permeate his artistic vision.
His artistic inclinations manifested early. Recognizing his talent, his family supported his initial artistic studies in Cherbourg around 1833, first under Paul Dumouchel, a portrait painter, and then Lucien-Théophile Langlois, a pupil of the esteemed Baron Gros. These local masters provided him with foundational skills, but it was clear that Paris, the epicenter of the art world, was the necessary next step for his development.
In 1837, with a modest stipend from the Cherbourg municipality, Millet ventured to Paris to study at the prestigious École des Beaux-Arts. He entered the studio of Paul Delaroche, a prominent academic painter known for his historical scenes. However, Millet found the academic environment and Delaroche's polished style somewhat stifling. He was more drawn to the works of Old Masters like Michelangelo and Nicolas Poussin, whose grandeur and gravitas he admired, as well as the earthy realism of Dutch and Flemish painters such as Rembrandt van Rijn and the Le Nain brothers. His time in Delaroche's studio was relatively brief, and he soon left to pursue a more independent path, absorbing lessons from the masterpieces he studied in the Louvre.
Early Career and the Path to Barbizon
Millet's early years in Paris were marked by struggle and poverty. He initially painted portraits and genre scenes in a somewhat Rococo-revival style to earn a living, a far cry from the subjects that would later define his oeuvre. Works from this period, sometimes referred to as his "manière fleurie" (flowery manner), show technical skill but lack the profound depth of his mature style. He submitted works to the Paris Salon, the official art exhibition of the Académie des Beaux-Arts, with mixed success. His first Salon acceptance came in 1840 with a portrait.
A significant turning point occurred in 1849. Fleeing a cholera epidemic in Paris and seeking a more congenial environment for his art and his growing family (he had remarried Catherine Lemaire in 1845 after the early death of his first wife, Pauline-Virginie Ono), Millet moved to the village of Barbizon, on the edge of the Forest of Fontainebleau. This move was pivotal. Barbizon was already becoming a haven for a group of landscape painters who sought direct inspiration from nature, rejecting the idealized landscapes of academic tradition.
Here, Millet found himself among kindred spirits. Artists like Théodore Rousseau, Charles-François Daubigny, Narcisse Diaz de la Peña, Constant Troyon, and Jules Dupré were all part of this emerging Barbizon School. While primarily landscape painters, their commitment to direct observation and a more naturalistic approach resonated with Millet. Though he also painted landscapes, Millet's primary focus shifted decisively to the human figure within that landscape – specifically, the peasant.
The Barbizon Years: Defining a Vision
In Barbizon, Millet's art found its true voice. He began to produce the iconic works that would secure his fame, depicting the peasants of the region engaged in their daily labors. These were not sentimentalized or idealized portrayals; rather, they were imbued with a sense of monumentality and a profound, almost biblical, gravity. He saw in the peasant a timeless symbol of humanity's connection to the earth and the cyclical nature of life, labor, and faith.
His technique evolved to match his subject matter. He employed a subdued palette, often dominated by earthy tones, and his figures became more sculptural and simplified, emphasizing their strength and endurance. His compositions were carefully constructed, lending a sense of classical order to scenes of everyday toil.
One of his earliest masterpieces from this period is _The Sower_ (1850). Exhibited at the Salon of 1850-51, the painting depicts a lone peasant striding across a darkening field, scattering seed with a powerful, rhythmic gesture. The figure is monumental, almost heroic, yet anonymous, silhouetted against the twilight sky. The work was met with a mixed, and often politically charged, reception. Conservatives saw in its raw power a potential symbol of social unrest, particularly in the wake of the 1848 Revolution, while others, like the critic Théophile Gautier, recognized its "grand style."
Masterpieces and Critical Reception
Throughout the 1850s and 1860s, Millet produced a succession of works that cemented his reputation, though often accompanied by controversy. His unflinching portrayal of rural poverty and hard labor was seen by some as a form of social critique, aligning him with Realist painters like Gustave Courbet, who actively sought to challenge the art establishment with their depictions of ordinary life. Millet, however, always maintained that his intentions were not primarily political but rather to convey the "human side" of peasant life.
_The Gleaners_ (1857) is perhaps his most famous work. It portrays three peasant women stooping to gather leftover stalks of wheat after the harvest, a practice known as gleaning, which was a right granted to the poor. The figures are depicted with a quiet dignity, their bent forms echoing the curve of the earth. In the background, the abundant harvest of the landowner contrasts sharply with the meager findings of the gleaners. The painting was criticized by some for its perceived socialist undertones and its unvarnished depiction of poverty, with one critic decrying its "ugliness." However, its powerful composition and empathetic portrayal have made it an enduring icon of Realism.
Another celebrated work, _The Angelus_ (c. 1857–1859), depicts two peasants, a man and a woman, pausing from their work in a potato field to recite the Angelus prayer as a church bell tolls in the distance. The scene is suffused with a quiet, devotional atmosphere, capturing a moment of spiritual reflection amidst the toil. This painting became immensely popular, particularly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and was widely reproduced. Its appeal lay in its evocation of piety, tradition, and the sanctity of rural life. Salvador Dalí, the Surrealist painter, was famously obsessed with The Angelus, writing an entire book, The Tragic Myth of Millet's Angelus, offering a psychoanalytic interpretation of the work.
Other significant works include _Man with a Hoe_ (1860–1862), which depicted an exhausted peasant leaning on his hoe, a figure that provoked outrage for its brutal realism and was seen by some as a symbol of dehumanizing labor. Edwin Markham's famous poem, "The Man with the Hoe," was directly inspired by this painting, further amplifying its social commentary. _Shepherdess Seated on a Rock_ (also known as Shepherdess and Her Flock, c. 1864) presents a more tranquil, though still solemn, image of pastoral life, showcasing Millet's skill in rendering atmospheric effects and the quiet harmony between humans and animals. _Potato Planters_ (1861) and _Harvesters Resting (Ruth and Boaz)_ (1850-53) further explore themes of agricultural labor, often with subtle biblical allusions, lending a timeless quality to the scenes.
Interactions with Contemporaries and Patrons
Millet maintained close relationships with his fellow Barbizon painters, particularly Théodore Rousseau, with whom he shared a deep friendship until Rousseau's death in 1867. They often discussed art and supported each other's endeavors. While not a gregarious figure, Millet was respected within this artistic community. He also had a crucial supporter in Alfred Sensier, a civil servant and art critic who became his lifelong friend, advocate, and eventually, his biographer. Sensier's efforts were instrumental in promoting Millet's work and shaping his posthumous reputation.
Despite the controversies, Millet did find patrons. American collectors, in particular, were drawn to his work, appreciating its perceived sincerity and moral seriousness. Figures like William Morris Hunt, an American painter who had studied in Paris and befriended Millet, played a role in introducing his art to the United States. The Boston Museum of Fine Arts, for instance, became an important repository of Millet's works.
He also had dealings with art dealers, though not always smoothly. Narcisse Diaz de la Peña, a fellow Barbizon artist, reportedly helped him connect with the dealer Paul Durand-Ruel, who would later become famous for championing the Impressionists. However, Millet also experienced financial difficulties and contractual disputes, such as a prolonged legal battle with the dealer Arthur Stevens, which for a time restricted his ability to sell his work freely.
In 1865, Millet received a commission from his friend, the architect Alfred Feydeau, to create four large paintings representing the seasons for the dining room of Thomas-Germain Dieutegard, a Parisian businessman. These works, including Spring (now at the Musée d'Orsay), demonstrated his ability to work on a larger, decorative scale while retaining his characteristic style.
Artistic Style: Characteristics and Innovations
Millet's style is characterized by several key elements:
Subject Matter: His unwavering focus on the peasant, depicted with dignity and monumentality, was revolutionary. He elevated the everyday life of the rural poor to the level of serious art, traditionally reserved for historical, mythological, or religious subjects.
Realism and Naturalism: While often categorized as a Realist, Millet's work also possesses a strong element of Naturalism, with a deep fidelity to the observed world. However, his realism was not merely photographic; it was infused with a poetic and often spiritual sensibility. He sought to capture the "cry of the earth."
Composition and Form: His figures are often solid, sculptural, and simplified, recalling the monumentality of artists like Michelangelo. Compositions are carefully balanced, lending a sense of timelessness and gravitas to his scenes.
Light and Color: Millet was a master of light, often using crepuscular effects – dawn, dusk, or overcast skies – to create a somber, contemplative mood. His palette was generally subdued, favoring earth tones, muted greens, and grays, which reinforced the connection of his subjects to the land.
Emotional Tone: His works evoke a range of emotions, from the weariness of labor to quiet piety and the enduring strength of the human spirit. There is often a sense of melancholy or solemnity, but also a profound respect for his subjects.
Controversies and Anecdotes
Millet's life and work were not without their share of controversies and interesting episodes. The critical reception of his major Salon paintings, as discussed, often sparked heated debate about the social and political implications of his art. Accusations of promoting socialism or depicting humanity in a debased state were common.
One notable anecdote involves the intense public reaction to Man with a Hoe. The figure's perceived brutishness led some to see it as an indictment of the social order that could produce such a creature, while others were simply repulsed by its lack of idealization.
The posthumous history of his works also generated discussion. The soaring prices achieved by some of his paintings, like The Angelus, at auction led to debates about art speculation and the commercialization of art. Furthermore, the legacy of an artist can sometimes be complicated by family. Millet's grandson, Jean-Charles Millet, was later implicated and convicted for forging his grandfather's works, a sad footnote that highlights the pressures and temptations that can arise from a famous artistic lineage.
Millet himself was reportedly a reserved and deeply religious man. His move to Barbizon was partly motivated by a desire for a simpler life, closer to the rural values he cherished. He was dedicated to his large family (he had nine children with Catherine Lemaire) and worked tirelessly to support them, often in the face of considerable financial strain.
Later Years and Enduring Legacy
In his later years, Millet achieved greater recognition and financial stability. He was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1868. He continued to paint, producing powerful landscapes and drawings in addition to his peasant scenes. His drawings and pastels, in particular, are highly regarded for their expressive power and technical mastery.
Jean-François Millet died in Barbizon on January 20, 1875, at the age of 60, leaving behind a body of work that would profoundly influence subsequent generations of artists. His impact was felt across various movements and national schools.
Impressionists: Artists like Camille Pissarro and the young Claude Monet admired his commitment to depicting contemporary life and his sensitivity to light and atmosphere, even if their artistic goals and techniques diverged. Pissarro, in particular, shared Millet's interest in rural themes.
Post-Impressionists: Vincent van Gogh revered Millet, seeing him as a "father" figure. Van Gogh copied many of Millet's works, including The Sower and First Steps, translating them into his own vibrant, expressive style. He deeply identified with Millet's depiction of peasant life and his spiritual connection to nature. Georges Seurat also studied Millet's compositions and his use of monumental figures.
Social Realists: Millet's empathetic portrayal of laborers resonated with artists of the Social Realist movement in the late 19th and 20th centuries, who sought to highlight social injustices and the lives of the working class. Artists like Léon Lhermitte and Jules Breton in France continued the tradition of peasant painting, often with a more sentimentalized approach than Millet's.
American Artists: As mentioned, American artists and collectors were early champions of Millet. Winslow Homer's depictions of rural American life share a certain gravitas and respect for ordinary people that echoes Millet's concerns.
Millet's art transcended national borders and artistic movements. His ability to imbue scenes of ordinary labor with a sense of timeless dignity and profound humanity ensured his lasting importance. He was more than just a painter of peasants; he was a poet of the earth, a chronicler of a way of life that was rapidly changing with the onset of industrialization, and a profound humanist whose work continues to speak to the enduring values of labor, faith, and our connection to the natural world. His legacy is not just in the specific images he created, but in the elevation of everyday life to the realm of high art, paving the way for a broader, more inclusive vision of what art could represent.
