Empress Dowager Cixi (1835-1908), born into the Manchu Yehenara clan, remains one of the most formidable and controversial figures in Chinese history. Her nearly half-century tenure as the de facto ruler of the declining Qing Dynasty witnessed profound internal upheavals and increasing foreign encroachment. While her political legacy is extensively debated, her significant engagement with the arts—as a practitioner, a discerning patron, and a subject of iconic portraiture—offers another vital lens through which to understand her multifaceted persona and the cultural currents of her time.
A Life Forged in Imperial Politics
Cixi's journey to supreme power was remarkable. Selected as a concubine to the Xianfeng Emperor (r. 1850-1861) in her youth, she quickly ascended the ranks, notably after giving birth to his only surviving son, the future Tongzhi Emperor. Following Xianfeng's death in 1861, Cixi, then aged 26, allied with Empress Dowager Ci'an (Xianfeng's principal consort) and Prince Gong to orchestrate the Xinyou Coup. This political maneuver ousted a regency council of conservative Manchu nobles, positioning the two empress dowagers as co-regents for the young Tongzhi Emperor.
Even after Ci'an's death in 1881, Cixi continued to wield immense influence, first during the remainder of Tongzhi's reign, then during the reign of her nephew, the Guangxu Emperor, whom she installed after Tongzhi's early death. Her rule was characterized by a complex interplay of conservative instincts and pragmatic reforms. She supported aspects of the Self-Strengthening Movement, which aimed to modernize China's military and industry, and later, after the Boxer Rebellion debacle, reluctantly endorsed more sweeping reforms, including the abolition of the imperial examination system and preparations for a constitutional monarchy. However, she is also criticized for her resistance to radical political change, her role in suppressing the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898, and her initial support for the anti-foreign Boxer Uprising, which led to a devastating international military intervention.
Cixi's Personal Artistic Pursuits: Calligraphy and Painting
Beyond the weighty affairs of state, Cixi cultivated personal artistic interests, particularly in calligraphy and painting. Historical records indicate she received instruction in these traditional scholarly arts during her youth. Though her political responsibilities likely curtailed these pursuits during her early years of power, she reportedly resumed painting with renewed vigor around 1882.
Her preferred subjects in painting were auspicious and symbolic, often featuring flowers like peonies (symbolizing wealth and honor), orchids (elegance and integrity), plum blossoms (resilience), and chrysanthemums (longevity), as well as bamboo (uprightness and strength). These themes were deeply rooted in Chinese artistic tradition, favored by scholar-officials and imperial artists alike for centuries. Artists like Yun Shouping (1633-1690) of the early Qing had set a high standard for flower painting, a tradition that continued through court painters.
Cixi's calligraphy often involved writing characters conveying good fortune, such as "Shou" and "Fu" . These calligraphic works were frequently bestowed as gifts upon favored officials, members of the imperial family, and even foreign dignitaries, serving as tokens of imperial favor and goodwill. The act of creating and gifting art was itself a performance of cultural refinement and imperial largesse. While the artistic merit of works directly attributable to her hand is debated, with many scholars suggesting the heavy involvement of court "ghost painters," her engagement with these art forms was undeniable.
The Phenomenon of Imperial "Ghost Painters"
The demanding nature of Cixi's political role and the high volume of artworks produced under her name necessitate a discussion of the "daibi" , or ghost painters. It was common practice for emperors and empresses with artistic inclinations to employ talented court artists to assist them, refine their work, or even paint entire pieces that would then be signed or sealed by the imperial personage. This was not necessarily seen as deceptive but rather as an extension of the imperial will and taste.
Several artists are known to have served Cixi in this capacity. Among the most prominent were Miao Jiahui and her sister Miao Suyun . Miao Jiahui, a talented widow from Yunnan, was particularly favored by Cixi for her skill in painting flowers and birds. She was reportedly granted the unusual privilege of not having to kowtow in Cixi's presence, a testament to the Empress Dowager's appreciation for her artistic services. Miao Suyun also served in the palace and is said to have instructed Cixi in painting techniques.
Another notable court painter active during Cixi's era was Qu Zhaolin , who specialized in meticulous depictions of flowers, birds, and landscapes. These artists, along with others in the imperial painting academy , were responsible for a significant output of works that reflected Cixi's preferred styles and themes. Their efforts ensured a steady supply of artworks for palace decoration, imperial gifts, and ceremonial purposes. The style often emulated established masters, but under Cixi's patronage, there was a particular emphasis on bright colors, auspicious symbolism, and decorative appeal, sometimes at the expense of the more profound artistic innovation seen in contemporaneous movements like the Shanghai School, which boasted luminaries such as Ren Bonian (Ren Yi) and Wu Changshuo.
Patronage of Porcelain and Decorative Arts
Cixi's artistic influence extended significantly to the realm of porcelain. She was an avid commissioner of ceramics from the imperial kilns at Jingdezhen. Vast quantities of porcelain were ordered for daily use in the palaces, for state banquets, for religious rituals, and as imperial gifts. These wares were often decorated with motifs that held personal significance for Cixi or conveyed auspicious meanings.
Common designs included phoenixes (symbol of the empress), peonies, chrysanthemums, and various longevity symbols like cranes, peaches, and the "Shou" character. The "Dayazhai" series of porcelains is particularly associated with Cixi. These pieces, often featuring intricate floral designs against colored grounds (like turquoise, yellow, or pink), bear the Dayazhai mark and the seal "Tiandi Yijia Chun" , a hall name within the Forbidden City. The quality of these late Qing porcelains, while sometimes criticized for lacking the innovative spirit of earlier Kangxi, Yongzheng, or Qianlong period wares, demonstrates a high level of technical skill and a distinct, opulent aesthetic favored by the Empress Dowager. Her taste in these areas reflected a desire for visual splendor and symbolic reinforcement of her authority and aspirations for a long and prosperous reign.
The Summer Palace: A Grand Artistic Vision
One of Cixi's most ambitious and enduring artistic undertakings was the reconstruction and expansion of the Summer Palace on the outskirts of Beijing. Originally developed by Emperor Qianlong, the gardens had been severely damaged by Anglo-French forces in 1860 during the Second Opium War. Cixi diverted substantial funds, including those controversially earmarked for naval modernization, towards its lavish rebuilding, intending it as her primary residence and a retreat from the formalities of the Forbidden City.
The design of the Yiheyuan reflects Cixi's personal tastes and her deep engagement with traditional Chinese garden aesthetics, which emphasize harmony between architecture and nature, the creation of picturesque vistas, and the incorporation of literary and mythological allusions. The vast complex includes Kunming Lake, Longevity Hill (Wanshoushan), numerous halls, pavilions, temples, and the famous Long Corridor (Chang Lang), adorned with thousands of individual paintings depicting landscapes, historical scenes, and literary themes.
Cixi personally supervised many aspects of the reconstruction, infusing the design with Buddhist imagery and symbols of longevity and imperial power. The Hall of Benevolence and Longevity (Renshou Dian) served as her audience hall, while the Hall of Joyful Longevity (Leshou Tang) was her living quarters. The Summer Palace stands as a monumental testament to her ambition, her aesthetic preferences, and her capacity as a patron of landscape architecture and decorative arts on a grand scale. It is, in many ways, her most significant "artwork."
Embracing Photography and Commissioning Portraits
Cixi was a pioneering figure in the Chinese imperial court for her embrace of photography, a relatively new technology at the time. In the early 20th century, particularly after the Boxer Rebellion when she sought to cultivate a more favorable international image, Cixi allowed herself to be photographed extensively. These photographs, taken by court photographer Xunling (son of the diplomat Yu Geng), show her in various elaborate costumes, sometimes posed as Guanyin, the Bodhisattva of Compassion, a deity with whom she strongly identified. These images were carefully stage-managed, presenting a dignified, serene, and culturally rich persona to both domestic and international audiences.
Beyond photography, Cixi also commissioned painted portraits by Western artists, a significant departure from traditional Chinese portraiture conventions. The most famous of these were undertaken by the American artist Katharine Augusta Carl and the Dutch-American artist Hubert Vos.
Katharine Carl was invited to the imperial court in 1903 and spent about nine months living in the palace, an unprecedented experience for a foreigner. She painted several portraits of Cixi, the most notable of which was intended for the St. Louis World's Fair in 1904. Carl's memoir, "With the Empress Dowager of China," provides invaluable, if somewhat idealized, insights into Cixi's personality and court life. Her portraits aimed to present Cixi in a regal and dignified manner, adhering to some Western conventions while incorporating Chinese imperial symbolism.
Hubert Vos painted Cixi in 1905. His portraits, particularly one now in the collection of the Harvard Art Museums, are often considered more psychologically penetrating than Carl's, capturing a sense of Cixi's formidable presence and intelligence. These commissions were part of Cixi's broader diplomatic efforts to engage with the West on her own terms and to project an image of a modern, albeit imperial, ruler. The engagement with Western artists like Carl and Vos, and the earlier influence of artists like Giuseppe Castiglione (Lang Shining) in the 18th-century Qing court, highlights a recurring theme of Sino-Western artistic exchange within the imperial precincts.
Cixi's Influence on Fashion and Courtly Style
Empress Dowager Cixi was also a significant arbiter of fashion and courtly style. She possessed an extensive wardrobe of exquisitely embroidered silk robes, elaborate headdresses adorned with pearls and jade, and intricate jewelry. Her personal preferences influenced the attire of court ladies and set trends within the elite circles of Manchu society.
Photographs and paintings depict her in a variety of opulent garments, often featuring auspicious symbols like dragons (for an empress regent), phoenixes, peonies, and longevity motifs. She paid meticulous attention to detail, from the choice of fabrics and colors to the specific accessories worn for different occasions. Her interest in fashion was not merely a personal indulgence; it was also a means of expressing her status, authority, and cultural identity. The lavishness of her attire and the decorative schemes she favored in her palaces contributed to a distinct late Qing imperial aesthetic characterized by richness, intricate detail, and symbolic meaning.
Artistic Legacy and Historical Assessment
Empress Dowager Cixi's engagement with the arts was multifaceted. As a practitioner, her skills in painting and calligraphy, though likely aided by court artists, demonstrated a commitment to traditional literati pursuits. As a patron, she commissioned a vast body of work across various media, from paintings and porcelain to grand architectural projects like the Summer Palace. Her patronage provided employment for numerous artisans and painters, including figures like Guan Nianci, whose work she reportedly admired, and those who emulated earlier masters such as Tang Zhengzhong, whose "Dream of Luofeng Peak" she is said to have finger-painted in imitation.
Her decision to be photographed and painted by Western artists was a notable step, reflecting a complex engagement with modernity and a desire to shape her international image. These portraits, along with the numerous photographs, have become iconic representations of Cixi and her era.
While some critics argue that her artistic tastes favored the decorative and the conventional over the innovative, and that the art produced under her patronage did not reach the heights of earlier Qing periods (such as the era of Emperor Qianlong, who was also a prolific poet and art collector, or the Kangxi Emperor, who patronized artists like Wang Hui), Cixi's impact on the material culture and artistic landscape of late Qing China is undeniable. Her artistic endeavors were inextricably linked to her political persona, serving to legitimize her rule, project an image of cultural sophistication, and leave an indelible mark on the visual legacy of imperial China. Her story reminds us that art and power are often deeply intertwined, each shaping and reflecting the other. The artists she patronized, from the Miao sisters to Katharine Carl, and the styles she favored, contribute to a richer understanding of this pivotal figure who stood at the crossroads of tradition and tumultuous change. Other contemporary artists like Zhao Zhiqian, known for his powerful calligraphy and seal carving, or flower painters like Ju Lian, represent the broader artistic currents of the time, against which Cixi's courtly art can be contextualized.
