Poul Simon Christiansen (1855–1933) stands as a significant and highly individualistic figure in the landscape of Danish art. Emerging during a period of profound transition, Christiansen carved a unique path, distinguished by his intense, spiritual engagement with his subjects and an audacious, deeply personal use of color. While often associated with the Funen Painters (Fynboerne) due to his origins and early connections, his artistic trajectory ultimately set him apart, marking him as a precursor to Danish modernism and a master of visionary expression. His work, often drawing from literary, mythological, and religious wellsprings, resonates with an inner light and emotional depth that continues to captivate.
Early Life and Artistic Awakening on Funen
Born on October 20, 1855, in Hundevad, near Fåborg on the island of Funen, Poul S. Christiansen's early life was rooted in the rural landscapes that would later inspire many of his contemporaries. Funen, with its gentle hills, fertile fields, and picturesque villages, was becoming a crucible for a new wave of Danish artists seeking to break from the academic traditions of Copenhagen. While detailed records of his earliest artistic inclinations are sparse, it is evident that the environment of Funen and the burgeoning artistic movements of the time played a role in shaping his nascent sensibilities.
The late 19th century in Denmark was a period of artistic ferment. The dominant Naturalism, epitomized by the Skagen Painters like P.S. Krøyer and Michael Ancher, focused on capturing the realities of everyday life and the effects of light. However, a younger generation was beginning to explore more subjective and expressive avenues, influenced by international currents such as Symbolism and Post-Impressionism. It was into this evolving artistic milieu that Christiansen would step, seeking formal training that could give voice to his burgeoning vision.
The Pivotal Influence of Kristian Zahrtmann
The most decisive turning point in Poul S. Christiansen's artistic development came when he enrolled at Kunstnernes Frie Studieskoler (The Artists' Free Study Schools) in Copenhagen, specifically joining the school run by Kristian Zahrtmann in 1885. He remained under Zahrtmann's tutelage until 1890. Zahrtmann (1843–1917) was a charismatic and unconventional figure, a powerful colorist himself, and a highly influential teacher who encouraged individualism and a bold approach to painting, particularly in the use of color and historical subject matter.
Zahrtmann's school became a vital alternative to the more conservative Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. He fostered an environment where experimentation was encouraged, and his students were urged to develop their personal styles. For Christiansen, Zahrtmann's emphasis on color as an expressive force, rather than merely a descriptive tool, was revelatory. Zahrtmann himself was known for his dramatic historical paintings, often imbued with psychological intensity and vibrant, sometimes non-naturalistic, color palettes. This resonated deeply with Christiansen's own inclinations.
At Zahrtmann's school, Christiansen found himself among a cohort of talented young artists who would go on to make significant contributions to Danish art. These included several figures who would become central to the Funen Painters group, such as Peter Hansen (1868–1928), Fritz Syberg (1862–1939), and Johannes Larsen (1867–1961). Other notable contemporaries and fellow students under Zahrtmann included Oluf Hartmann (1879–1910), known for his sensitive landscapes and figure paintings, and Karl Isakson (1878–1922), a Swedish-Danish painter who would become a key figure in early Scandinavian modernism, particularly admired for his Cézanne-influenced still lifes and landscapes. The interactions and shared learning experiences within this vibrant group undoubtedly contributed to Christiansen's artistic growth, even as his path began to diverge.
Italian Sojourns: Light, Color, and Ancient Echoes
Kristian Zahrtmann had a deep affection for Italy, particularly the small mountain town of Civita d'Antino in the Abruzzo region, which became an annual summer retreat for him and many of his students. Poul S. Christiansen accompanied Zahrtmann on several of these trips. These Italian sojourns were profoundly impactful for Christiansen. The intense Mediterranean light, the rich colors of the Italian landscape, the art of the Italian masters, and the ancient, timeless quality of towns like Civita d'Antino provided a wealth of inspiration.
In Italy, away from the more subdued light of Scandinavia, Christiansen's engagement with color intensified further. He absorbed the lessons of the Italian Renaissance and Baroque masters, not by slavish imitation, but by internalizing their command of composition and emotional expression. The experience of living and working in a landscape steeped in history and classical mythology also likely fueled his interest in grand, timeless themes. The camaraderie with Zahrtmann and fellow students in this inspiring setting allowed for focused work and artistic dialogue, solidifying the lessons learned in Copenhagen. These Italian experiences became integral to his artistic DNA, informing his palette and his approach to form and light throughout his career.
The Emergence of a Unique Artistic Vision
Following his studies with Zahrtmann and his formative experiences in Italy, Poul S. Christiansen began to forge a highly personal artistic style. While he shared the Funen Painters' love for their native landscape and their commitment to a more direct, less academic approach to art, Christiansen's work increasingly moved towards a more visionary and symbolic expression. His use of color became exceptionally bold and subjective, often departing entirely from naturalistic representation to convey emotional states or spiritual ideas.
Influences from international Post-Impressionism, particularly the expressive intensity of Vincent van Gogh and the symbolic colorism of Paul Gauguin, can be discerned in his work, though filtered through his own unique sensibility. Christiansen was less concerned with the objective depiction of reality and more interested in conveying the inner essence of his subjects. His paintings often possess a luminous quality, as if lit from within, and his figures, whether human or divine, carry a profound sense of gravitas and psychological depth. This set him apart from the more straightforward Naturalism or Impressionism of many of his Danish contemporaries.
Themes of the Spirit: Dante, Mythology, and Religion
Poul S. Christiansen's subject matter was ambitious and often drew from the grand narratives of literature, mythology, and religion. He was particularly captivated by Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, a theme he returned to repeatedly throughout his career. His interpretations of Dante's epic poem are among his most powerful and characteristic works. Rather than merely illustrating scenes, Christiansen sought to capture the spiritual drama and psychological intensity of Dante's journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise.
His painting Dante og Vergil i Helvedes Forgaard (Dante and Virgil in the Antechamber of Hell) is a prime example. Here, the figures of the poets are rendered with a monumental simplicity, enveloped in an atmosphere of somber, glowing colors that evoke the otherworldly nature of the scene. The emotional weight of the encounter with the souls in limbo is palpable. Similarly, his depictions of Beatrice, Dante's guide through Paradise, are imbued with an ethereal radiance and spiritual grace.
Beyond Dante, Christiansen explored other religious themes, often bringing a fresh and deeply personal perspective to familiar biblical stories. He also painted mythological subjects and landscapes that, even when seemingly straightforward, often carried symbolic undertones. His figures are typically strong and sculptural, and his compositions carefully constructed to enhance the emotional and narrative impact. This focus on profound, often spiritual, themes, combined with his expressive use of color, distinguished him in the Danish art scene.
Key Works and Artistic Language
Several works stand out in Poul S. Christiansen's oeuvre, showcasing his unique artistic language. Beyond his Dante series, his painting Udsigt fra Knøsen mod Refsnæs (View from Knøsen towards Refsnæs) demonstrates his ability to imbue landscape with a powerful, almost mystical quality. The colors are heightened, and the forms simplified, creating a scene that transcends mere topography to become an expression of mood and atmosphere.
Another significant work, Friheste ege (Free Coasts' Oaks, or perhaps more accurately, Oaks at Friheden on the coast), acquired by the Horsens Kunstmuseum in 1919, exemplifies his mature style. The gnarled forms of the ancient oak trees are rendered with a rugged strength, and the colors of the landscape are rich and resonant. There is a sense of timelessness and enduring power in such works.
His portraits, too, often go beyond mere likeness to explore the inner character of the sitter. Throughout his career, Christiansen maintained a commitment to a painterly surface, with visible brushstrokes contributing to the texture and vibrancy of his canvases. His compositions are often characterized by a strong sense of design and a rhythmic interplay of forms and colors. He was a master of creating a specific mood, whether it be one of awe, contemplation, or spiritual struggle.
Den Frie Udstilling: A Platform for Independence
Poul S. Christiansen became closely associated with Den Frie Udstilling (The Free Exhibition), an artists' association founded in 1891 in Copenhagen as a progressive alternative to the juried exhibitions of the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts and the Charlottenborg Spring Exhibition. Den Frie provided a crucial platform for artists who were pushing the boundaries of Danish art, including many Symbolists, Post-Impressionists, and early Modernists.
Christiansen made his debut at Den Frie Udstilling in 1895, and he remained a loyal member, exhibiting there regularly throughout his career. This association placed him firmly within the avant-garde of Danish art. In 1910, Den Frie Udstilling honored him with a significant retrospective exhibition, a testament to the respect he had garnered among his peers and his recognized importance in the evolving Danish art scene. His participation in Den Frie connected him with other pioneering artists of the era, such as J.F. Willumsen, Vilhelm Hammershøi, and the Skovgaard family of artists, including Joakim Skovgaard (1856–1933).
Contemporaries and Artistic Connections
While Poul S. Christiansen forged a highly individual path, his career was interwoven with those of many significant contemporaries. His teacher, Kristian Zahrtmann, remained a lifelong influence and point of reference. His fellow students from Zahrtmann's school, particularly the Funen Painters Peter Hansen, Fritz Syberg, and Johannes Larsen, shared his roots in Funen and his early training, though their artistic development took them in directions more focused on capturing the life and landscape of their native island with a lyrical naturalism. Anna Syberg (1870–1914), Fritz Syberg's wife and a gifted painter of flowers and delicate watercolors, was also part of this circle. Alhed Larsen (1872-1927), wife of Johannes Larsen, was another prominent female artist within the Funen group, known for her interior scenes and floral motifs.
Christiansen maintained a close friendship with Joakim Skovgaard, a prominent figure in Danish art known for his monumental religious paintings and decorative schemes, most notably the frescoes in Viborg Cathedral. Skovgaard, like Christiansen, was deeply engaged with religious themes and sought to revitalize sacred art in Denmark. It is documented that Skovgaard assisted Christiansen in securing commissions for church decorations, indicating a mutual respect and collaborative spirit.
Niels Larsen Stevns (1864–1941), another artist with strong religious convictions and a distinctive, expressive style, was also a friend and contemporary. Stevns, like Christiansen and Skovgaard, contributed significantly to modern Danish religious art. He, too, had studied under Zahrtmann for a period and was associated with Den Frie Udstilling.
The broader artistic milieu included figures like Vilhelm Hammershøi (1864-1916), whose quiet, enigmatic interiors offered a different, yet equally modern, sensibility. While Hammershøi's muted palette and introspective mood differed greatly from Christiansen's vibrant colorism, both artists represented a departure from traditional academic art and contributed to the richness of Danish painting at the turn of the century. Carl Peter Tommelse, another student of Zahrtmann, though perhaps less widely known today, was part of the same generation exploring new artistic directions.
Later Years and Lasting Legacy
Poul S. Christiansen continued to paint with undiminished intensity throughout his later years. He remained committed to his visionary themes and his personal use of color, largely unaffected by the shifting trends in the art world. By the time of his death in Copenhagen on November 27, 1933, he had established a reputation as one of Denmark's most original and spiritually profound painters.
His legacy is that of an artist who dared to follow his own inner vision, creating a body of work that stands apart for its emotional depth and radiant color. While he may not have achieved the same broad international recognition as some of his Scandinavian contemporaries, his importance within Danish art history is undeniable. He is seen as a key transitional figure, bridging the 19th-century traditions and the emerging modernism of the 20th century. His work demonstrated that modern art could encompass not only formal innovation but also profound spiritual and intellectual engagement.
Today, Poul S. Christiansen's paintings are held in major Danish museums, including the Statens Museum for Kunst (National Gallery of Denmark), Den Hirschsprungske Samling, and various regional art museums. His interpretations of Dante, in particular, are considered masterpieces of Danish Symbolist art. He is remembered as a "painter of light and the human soul," an artist whose canvases continue to resonate with a powerful inner luminosity and a deep understanding of the human condition. His unwavering commitment to his personal artistic quest serves as an inspiration, and his work remains a testament to the enduring power of color and visionary expression in art.
Conclusion: A Singular Voice in Danish Art
Poul S. Christiansen was more than just a skilled painter; he was an artist of profound conviction and singular vision. From his formative years under the influential Kristian Zahrtmann to his mature explorations of grand literary and spiritual themes, he consistently pursued a path defined by intense emotional expression and a masterful, subjective use of color. His association with Den Frie Udstilling placed him at the forefront of Danish artistic innovation, and his friendships with contemporaries like Joakim Skovgaard and Niels Larsen Stevns situated him within a circle of artists dedicated to revitalizing religious and monumental art.
Though sometimes overshadowed by the more cohesive groups like the Funen Painters or the Skagen Painters, Christiansen's unique contribution lies in his deeply personal synthesis of color, form, and spiritual content. His paintings, particularly his Dante cycle, remain powerful testaments to his ability to translate complex emotional and intellectual ideas into compelling visual language. As a pivotal figure who navigated the currents of late 19th and early 20th-century art, Poul S. Christiansen left an indelible mark on Danish art, celebrated for his visionary intensity and his enduring belief in the expressive power of color to illuminate the depths of human experience.
