Felix Nussbaum stands as one of the most poignant artistic voices of the 20th century, a German-Jewish painter whose life and work became inextricably intertwined with the horrors of the Holocaust. His art, evolving from the detached observations of New Objectivity to a deeply personal and harrowing form of Surrealism, serves as an unflinching visual diary of persecution, exile, and the indomitable human spirit's will to bear witness. Nussbaum's canvases are not merely historical documents; they are profound meditations on identity, fear, loss, and the enduring power of art in the face of annihilation.
Early Life and Artistic Awakening in Osnabrück
Felix Nussbaum was born on December 11, 1904, in Osnabrück, Germany, into an assimilated Jewish family. His father, Philipp Nussbaum, was a prosperous hardware merchant and a passionate amateur painter. Philipp had served as a German patriot in World War I, a background that initially fostered a sense of belonging and security within the family. Young Felix inherited his father's love for art, and his early talent was encouraged. This supportive environment was crucial in shaping his decision to pursue a career as an artist, a path less trodden but one his father understood and championed.
His formal artistic education began in Hamburg in 1922, followed by studies in Berlin at the Lewin-Funke School and later at the prestigious United State Schools for Fine and Applied Arts (Vereinigte Staatsschulen für Freie und Angewandte Kunst) in Charlottenburg. Here, he studied under prominent artists such as Paul Plontke and César Klein, and later, significantly, under Hans Meid. During these formative years, Nussbaum absorbed the vibrant, often tumultuous, artistic currents of the Weimar Republic. He was exposed to German Expressionism, with its raw emotion and distorted forms, exemplified by artists like Ernst Ludwig Kirchner and Emil Nolde, and the burgeoning New Objectivity (Neue Sachlichkeit) movement.
The Influence of New Objectivity and Early Success
The New Objectivity, with its sober, realistic, and often satirical portrayal of post-World War I German society, resonated with Nussbaum. Artists like Otto Dix and George Grosz, known for their unsparing critiques of war, corruption, and social decay, were key figures in this movement. Nussbaum’s early works, such as Two Jews (Zwei Juden) (1926) and The Madman (Der tolle Platz) (1931), reflect this influence, showcasing a meticulous technique and a keen observation of his subjects, often imbued with a subtle sense of unease or melancholy.
His talent did not go unnoticed. He gained recognition, participating in exhibitions and receiving positive critical attention. A significant milestone came in 1932 when he was awarded the prestigious Rome Prize by the Prussian Academy of Arts. This scholarship allowed him to study at the Villa Massimo, the German academy in Rome, a coveted opportunity for any young artist. He traveled to Italy with his future wife, Felka Platek, a Polish-Jewish painter whom he had met in Berlin in 1927. Platek, also a talented artist, became his lifelong companion and a crucial source of support.
The Shadow of Nazism and the Beginning of Exile
The idyllic period in Rome was brutally cut short. In January 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany, marking the beginning of the Nazi regime and a dark era for German Jews and avant-garde artists. The Nazi ideology condemned modern art as "degenerate" (Entartete Kunst), and Jewish artists were systematically persecuted, stripped of their positions, and forbidden to exhibit or work.
While in Rome, Nussbaum experienced a chilling premonition of what was to come. A fire, allegedly started by pro-Nazi students, broke out in his studio at the Villa Massimo. Though the exact circumstances remain debated, this event, coupled with the increasingly hostile political climate, made it clear that returning to Germany was no longer safe. Hans Meid, his former professor, advised him against it. The Rome Prize was effectively revoked under the new regime. Thus began Nussbaum's life in exile, a journey marked by constant movement, uncertainty, and a desperate search for refuge.
From Italy, Nussbaum and Platek traveled to France, spending time in Paris and then moving to Ostend, Belgium, in 1935. The Belgian coast, with its moody seascapes and artistic community (James Ensor, for instance, was a prominent figure in Ostend), provided a temporary haven. During this period, Nussbaum's style began to shift. While the precision of New Objectivity remained, a more symbolic and surreal quality started to permeate his work. He was undoubtedly aware of the broader Surrealist movement, with figures like Salvador Dalí and René Magritte (a Belgian Surrealist) gaining prominence, but Nussbaum’s surrealism was less about Freudian dreamscapes and more a direct response to his lived experience of displacement and growing dread.
He was also influenced by the works of artists like Vincent van Gogh, whose emotional intensity and expressive use of color he admired, and Henri Rousseau, whose naive, dreamlike paintings offered a different kind of reality. The unsettling, melancholic cityscapes of Giorgio de Chirico and Carlo Carrà, pioneers of Metaphysical Painting, also found echoes in Nussbaum's increasingly allegorical compositions.
Art in the Face of Fear: Brussels and the Pre-War Years
In 1937, Felix Nussbaum and Felka Platek married in Brussels, seeking to secure their legal status. They settled in the Belgian capital, where they lived a precarious existence. Despite the challenges, Nussbaum continued to paint prolifically. His works from this period, such as The Refugee (Der Flüchtling) (1939), vividly depict the anxiety and isolation of exile. The figures are often solitary, surrounded by symbolic objects that speak of loss, memory, and a fragile hope for safety.
His paintings became increasingly autobiographical, chronicling his psychological state. He often depicted himself, sometimes directly, sometimes through allegorical figures, trapped in confined spaces, surrounded by ominous symbols. The themes of masks, empty streets, and desolate landscapes became recurrent motifs, reflecting his sense of alienation and the encroaching darkness. Works like Fear (Self-Portrait with Niece Marianne) (1941) (though the title sometimes varies, the painting depicts him with his niece, or a figure representing her, in a state of alarm) capture the pervasive atmosphere of anxiety.
The influence of earlier masters like Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Bruegel the Elder, with their crowded, allegorical scenes of human folly and suffering, can be discerned in the complex, narrative quality of some of Nussbaum's later works. He was creating a visual language to articulate the unspeakable.
Occupation, Internment, and a Daring Escape
The fragile peace was shattered in May 1940 when Germany invaded Belgium. As a German national, Nussbaum was arrested by the Belgian authorities as an "enemy alien" and deported to the Saint-Cyprien internment camp in southern France. The conditions in Saint-Cyprien were horrific – overcrowded, unsanitary, and with little food. This experience profoundly impacted Nussbaum, and he documented it in stark, haunting drawings and paintings, such as Self-Portrait in the Camp (Selbstbildnis im Lager) (1940). This powerful self-portrait shows him gaunt, with haunted eyes, against the backdrop of the camp's bleakness, a testament to his resilience and his determination to record his reality.
Remarkably, Nussbaum managed to escape from Saint-Cyprien. When the French authorities offered internees the chance to be repatriated to Germany, Nussbaum, understanding the mortal danger this posed for a Jew, requested to be sent back to Germany but managed to flee during the transport near Bordeaux. He made his way back to Brussels, a perilous journey, to reunite with Felka.
Life in Hiding: The Final Canvases
From late 1940 until their arrest in 1944, Felix Nussbaum and Felka Platek lived in hiding in Brussels, at 22 rue Archimède, in an attic apartment. They were aided by Belgian friends, including the sculptor Dolf Ledel, who provided them with shelter and art supplies. Despite the constant fear of discovery and the ever-present threat of deportation, Nussbaum entered his most intense and arguably most significant period of artistic production.
His studio became his world, and his paintings became his sole means of communication with a future he might not live to see. The works from this period are characterized by a heightened sense of claustrophobia, despair, and an almost unbearable tension. He painted with a desperate urgency, as if racing against time.
One of his most iconic works from this period is Self-Portrait with Jewish Identity Card (Selbstbildnis mit Judenpass) (1943). In this chilling image, Nussbaum confronts the viewer directly, his face etched with weariness and defiance. He wears an overcoat with the yellow Star of David, and behind him is a wall, symbolizing his trapped existence, with a dark, threatening sky visible through a small opening. The painting is a powerful statement of identity under duress, a refusal to be erased.
Other significant paintings from this hidden period include Organ Grinder (Drehorgelspieler) (1943), where a lone musician plays amidst ruins, perhaps symbolizing the lost culture of Europe, and Soir (Evening) (1942/43), depicting a desolate, eerie street scene that evokes a sense of impending doom. His use of color became more somber, his compositions more complex and laden with symbolism. Walls, fences, dead trees, and skeletal figures populate these canvases, creating a visual lexicon of terror.
Triumph of Death and the Final Deportation
Perhaps his last major work, painted in April 1944, is the apocalyptic Triumph of Death (Triumph des Todes). This harrowing masterpiece depicts a desolate landscape littered with the debris of civilization – broken musical instruments, books, tools of art and science – while skeletal figures dance and play amidst the ruins. It is a powerful allegory of the destruction of European culture and humanity by the forces of barbarism. The painting echoes the medieval "Dance of Death" tradition but is infused with the specific horrors of his time. It is a vision of utter desolation, yet also a testament to the artist's unyielding need to create, to give form to the abyss.
The D-Day landings in June 1944 brought a glimmer of hope for liberation, but it came too late for Felix and Felka. On June 20, 1944, following a denunciation, they were discovered in their hiding place and arrested by the German occupying forces. They were taken to the Mechelen (Malines) transit camp in Belgium.
On July 31, 1944, Felix Nussbaum and Felka Platek were put on the last transport from Mechelen to Auschwitz-Birkenau. Felix Nussbaum was murdered in Auschwitz, likely shortly after his arrival. The exact date of his death is recorded as August 9, 1944. He was 39 years old. Felka Platek also perished in the Holocaust, though the precise date and circumstances of her death are less certain. Nussbaum's parents, Philipp and Rahel, and his brother, Justus, had also been deported and murdered earlier. His sister-in-law and niece, however, managed to survive.
Before his deportation, Nussbaum had entrusted a large number of his paintings to his friend, the dentist Dr. Grosfils, and to Dolf Ledel. He reportedly said, "If I perish, do not let my paintings die. Show them to mankind." This poignant plea underscores his belief in the enduring power of his art as a form of testimony.
Legacy and Remembrance: The Felix Nussbaum Haus
For many years after the war, Felix Nussbaum was largely forgotten, one among millions of victims. However, thanks to the efforts of a small group of individuals in Osnabrück, including his cousin Auguste Moses-Nussbaum, his work began to be rediscovered in the 1970s. Exhibitions were organized, and his paintings started to gain the recognition they deserved.
The most significant tribute to his life and work is the Felix Nussbaum Haus in Osnabrück, a museum designed by the renowned architect Daniel Libeskind, himself the son of Holocaust survivors. Opened in 1998, the museum houses the world's largest collection of Nussbaum's paintings, over 200 works. Libeskind's architecture, with its disorienting angles, narrow corridors, and stark concrete, powerfully complements Nussbaum's art, creating an immersive experience that reflects the artist's fractured world and the trauma of the Holocaust. The building itself is a work of art, a "museum without an exit," symbolizing the inescapable fate of Nussbaum and so many others.
Nussbaum's works are also held in other prestigious collections, including the Jewish Museum Berlin, Yad Vashem in Jerusalem, and the Israel Museum. His art is studied not only for its aesthetic qualities but also as a crucial historical document, offering a unique and deeply personal perspective on the Holocaust from the viewpoint of a persecuted artist.
His artistic journey reflects the broader trajectory of many artists of his generation who were forced to confront totalitarianism. While his early work aligned with the critical realism of New Objectivity figures like Max Beckmann (whose own work became increasingly allegorical in exile) and Otto Dix, his later, more surreal and symbolic paintings, created under extreme duress, are unique. They do not share the playful or psychoanalytic explorations of mainstream Surrealists like Max Ernst or Joan Miró; instead, Nussbaum's surrealism is a language forged in terror, a way to depict a reality that had itself become nightmarishly surreal.
Felix Nussbaum's legacy is that of an artist who refused to be silenced. In the face of unimaginable horror, he continued to paint, transforming his fear, his anguish, and his fleeting moments of hope into powerful images that speak across generations. His work is a testament to the resilience of the human spirit and the vital role of art as a form of resistance, remembrance, and a warning against the recurrence of such atrocities. His paintings ensure that his voice, and the voices of those who perished alongside him, will not be forgotten.
