Henry Salt (1780-1827) stands as a fascinating and multifaceted figure of the late Georgian and Regency periods in Britain. While he initially embarked on a career as a painter, his life's trajectory took him on extraordinary journeys, leading him to become a significant diplomat, an avid collector of antiquities, and a pioneering, if sometimes controversial, figure in the nascent field of Egyptology. His artistic output, though perhaps overshadowed by his archaeological endeavors, remains a crucial visual record of his travels and a testament to his keen observational skills.
Early Life and Artistic Aspirations
Born in the historic cathedral city of Lichfield, Staffordshire, in 1780, Henry Salt was the son of a physician, Thomas Salt, and his wife Alice. This provincial upbringing provided a stable, if not overtly artistic, foundation. Young Henry showed an early inclination towards the arts, and his family supported his ambitions. He was sent to London to pursue formal artistic training, a common path for aspiring painters of the era.
In London, Salt studied under the tutelage of Joseph Farington R.A. (1747-1821), a respected landscape painter and influential diarist whose records provide invaluable insights into the London art world of the time. Farington's style, rooted in the topographical tradition, likely influenced Salt's own meticulous approach to landscape and architectural subjects. Salt also received instruction from John Hoppner R.A. (1758-1810), a prominent portrait painter and rival to Sir Thomas Lawrence. Despite this training in portraiture, Salt's attempts to establish himself as a professional portrait painter in London met with limited success. The field was highly competitive, dominated by established figures like Lawrence (1769-1830), Henry Raeburn (1756-1823) in Scotland, and Thomas Phillips (1770-1845). Perhaps his temperament or style was not entirely suited to the demands of London's fashionable clientele.
The Grand Tour Reimagined: Travels to the East
The turn of the 19th century offered new avenues for artists. While the traditional Grand Tour to Italy was complicated by the Napoleonic Wars, opportunities arose for more extensive travels further afield. In 1802, a significant opportunity presented itself to Salt: he was invited to accompany George Annesley, Viscount Valentia (later 2nd Earl of Mountnorris), as his secretary and draughtsman on an extended tour to India and the East. This voyage, lasting several years, would prove transformative for Salt's career and artistic focus.
Lord Valentia's expedition was ambitious, encompassing India, Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka), the Red Sea littoral, and Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia). Salt's role was to visually document the landscapes, peoples, architecture, and antiquities encountered. This was a period when British colonial and commercial interests in these regions were expanding, and there was a growing public appetite for images and information about these distant lands. Salt's drawings were intended to serve as the basis for illustrations in Valentia's planned travelogue.
During these travels, Salt diligently sketched and painted, capturing the vibrant colors and exotic scenery. His work from this period demonstrates a developing skill in watercolor, a medium well-suited to the demands of travel due to its portability and quick drying time. He depicted bustling cityscapes, ancient ruins, and dramatic natural vistas, often with an eye for accurate detail that would later serve him well in his archaeological pursuits. The influence of artists like Thomas Daniell (1749-1840) and his nephew William Daniell (1769-1837), whose aquatints of Indian scenery had already captivated the British public, can be seen as part of the broader context of British artists documenting the East.
"Twenty-four Views": A Published Legacy
Upon his return to England around 1806, Salt began the process of preparing his drawings for publication. The most significant artistic fruit of this early period of travel was his work, "Twenty-four Views in St. Helena, the Cape, India, Ceylon, the Red Sea, Abyssinia and Egypt." This collection of aquatints, expertly engraved by Daniel Havell (1785-1826) and his family, notably Robert Havell Sr. and Jr., who were renowned for their work with artists like John James Audubon, was published in 1809 by William Miller.
The "Twenty-four Views" provided the British public with some of the most striking and comprehensive visual accounts of these regions to date. The subjects ranged from the dramatic volcanic landscapes of St. Helena to the colonial architecture of the Cape, the intricate temples of India, and the ancient wonders of Egypt, including panoramic views of Cairo and the majestic Pyramids of Giza. Salt's original watercolors, translated into the aquatint medium, retained their clarity and detail, offering a blend of topographical accuracy and picturesque sensibility. These images were not merely pretty pictures; they were valuable documents that informed and shaped British perceptions of the wider world. His work can be seen in the tradition of earlier artists who depicted the Near East, such as Luigi Mayer (c. 1750-1803), whose views of the Ottoman Empire were also popular.
Salt also contributed illustrations to Lord Valentia's own publication, "Voyages and Travels to India, Ceylon, the Red Sea, Abyssinia, and Egypt, in the Years 1802, 1803, 1804, 1805, and 1806," which appeared in three volumes in 1809. These illustrations further disseminated Salt's artistic vision and documented the scientific and exploratory aspects of the journey.
Diplomatic Missions and a Return to Africa
Salt's experiences and knowledge gained during his travels with Lord Valentia did not go unnoticed by the British government. His familiarity with Abyssinia, in particular, was deemed valuable. In 1809, he was entrusted with a government mission to Abyssinia to establish diplomatic relations and explore the possibility of an alliance with the Ethiopian Emperor. This was a challenging and often perilous undertaking, requiring considerable diplomatic skill and resilience.
During this mission, Salt continued to sketch and document his surroundings. His experiences and observations formed the basis for another publication, "A Voyage to Abyssinia, and Travels into the Interior of that Country," published in 1814. This work included further illustrations based on his drawings, offering insights into a land little known to Europeans at the time. He also produced a separate set of views, sometimes referred to as "Twenty-four Views in Abyssinia," further cementing his reputation as an artist-explorer. His description and admiration for the ancient stelae of Axum, including the famous Axum Obelisk, highlighted his growing interest in ancient monuments.
Consul-General in Egypt: A New Chapter
The pivotal moment in Henry Salt's career came in 1815 when, through the influence of Lord Mountnorris (formerly Viscount Valentia), he was appointed British Consul-General in Egypt. At this time, Egypt, though nominally part of the Ottoman Empire, was effectively under the rule of Muhammad Ali Pasha, an ambitious modernizer. The country was also becoming a focal point for European powers, not only for strategic reasons but also for its immense archaeological treasures, which were increasingly attracting the attention of scholars, collectors, and adventurers.
The Napoleonic expedition to Egypt (1798-1801) had dramatically reawakened European interest in ancient Egyptian civilization. Artists like Dominique Vivant Denon (1747-1825), who accompanied Napoleon, had published influential works like "Voyage dans la Basse et la Haute Égypte," filled with engravings of temples and artifacts, igniting a passion for Egyptology. Salt arrived in Egypt in this charged atmosphere, where the race to acquire antiquities was becoming increasingly intense.
As Consul-General, Salt was in a unique position. His diplomatic role provided him with access, influence, and resources. He quickly immersed himself in the world of Egyptian antiquities, not merely as an observer but as an active participant in their excavation and collection. He employed agents, most notably the adventurous Italian Giovanni Battista Belzoni (1778-1823), a former circus strongman turned explorer and excavator, to undertake archaeological work on his behalf.
Archaeological Endeavors and Major Collections
Salt's activities in Egypt led to the acquisition of a remarkable array of artifacts. He sponsored and directed excavations at key sites, including Thebes (Luxor and Karnak), Abu Simbel, and the Valley of the Kings. One of his most famous acquisitions, facilitated by Belzoni's efforts, was the colossal granite head of Ramesses II, often known as the "Younger Memnon." After considerable effort, this magnificent sculpture was transported to England and presented to the British Museum in 1818, where it remains one of the museum's most iconic exhibits.
Another significant find associated with Salt and Belzoni was the discovery and exploration of the tomb of Seti I in the Valley of the Kings (KV17), one of the longest, deepest, and most beautifully decorated tombs in the necropolis. Salt acquired the magnificent alabaster sarcophagus of Seti I from this tomb. He offered it to the British Museum, but the price was deemed too high. Eventually, it was purchased by the architect Sir John Soane (1753-1837) in 1824 and is now the centerpiece of Sir John Soane's Museum in London.
Salt amassed three substantial collections of Egyptian antiquities during his time in Egypt. The first was sold to the British Museum in 1823. The second, even larger collection, was sold to King Charles X of France in 1826 and formed a significant part of the Egyptian collection at the Musée du Louvre in Paris. His third collection was auctioned at Sotheby's in London after his death. These collections included statues, sarcophagi, papyri, stelae, and numerous smaller objects, significantly enriching the holdings of these major European museums and contributing to the scholarly study of ancient Egypt.
Artistic Style in an Egyptian Context
Throughout his time in Egypt, Salt continued to sketch and paint, though his diplomatic and antiquarian duties increasingly took precedence. His artistic style remained characterized by a careful attention to detail and a desire for topographical accuracy. His depictions of Egyptian temples, tombs, and landscapes, such as his views of Karnak or the Pyramids, served not only as personal records but also as valuable documentation for a public eager to visualize these ancient wonders.
His work, while perhaps not possessing the romantic grandeur of later Orientalist painters like David Roberts (1796-1864) or the dramatic flair of Eugène Delacroix (1798-1863) in his North African scenes, had a distinct value. Salt's art was often more directly engaged with the archaeological context, reflecting his deep involvement in the uncovering and interpretation of ancient sites. His paintings and drawings complemented his collecting activities, providing visual context for the artifacts he was sending back to Europe. One can imagine him working alongside other European artists and draughtsmen who were also drawn to Egypt, such as the Italian artist and excavator Bernardino Drovetti (1776-1852), who was Salt's main rival in the collection of antiquities.
Wider Intellectual Pursuits: Animal Rights and Social Reform
Beyond his artistic and Egyptological pursuits, Henry Salt was a man of progressive, if somewhat unconventional for his time, intellectual interests. He developed a strong concern for animal welfare and became an advocate for vegetarianism. He authored several essays and pamphlets on these subjects, including the notable work "Animals' Rights: Considered in Relation to Social Progress" (published later, but reflecting his developing views) and "A Plea for Vegetarianism."
These writings place him as an early and important voice in the burgeoning animal rights and vegetarian movements. His ideas were influential, reportedly impacting figures such as the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822), who was a contemporary, and later, thinkers like Mahatma Gandhi and George Bernard Shaw. Salt was also involved in the early stages of forming humanitarian societies, reflecting a broader concern for social reform that extended beyond his diplomatic duties. This aspect of his life reveals a compassionate and ethically minded individual, whose concerns for justice and humane treatment extended to all living beings.
Controversies and Criticisms
Henry Salt's activities in Egypt were not without controversy, both during his lifetime and in subsequent historical assessments. The early 19th century was a period of intense competition for Egyptian antiquities, often described as a "scramble" or even "looting." Consuls and agents of European powers, including Salt, Drovetti (representing France), and others, engaged in practices that would be considered unethical and destructive by modern archaeological standards.
Excavations were often conducted hastily, with a primary focus on acquiring impressive museum pieces rather than on careful scientific recording and preservation. Rivalries between collectors were fierce, sometimes leading to disputes and even confrontations at excavation sites. Salt himself was criticized by some as being more of an "antiquities dealer" than a disinterested scholar, driven by the potential for financial gain from the sale of his collections.
However, it is important to view Salt's actions within the context of his time. The concept of cultural heritage as national property was not yet fully developed, and the legal framework for protecting antiquities in Egypt was minimal. Many believed they were "rescuing" these artifacts from neglect or destruction by bringing them to European museums. While his methods were certainly a product of their era, his efforts undeniably played a crucial role in building the great Egyptology collections that have facilitated centuries of scholarship.
Collaborations and the Artistic Milieu
Salt's artistic career, particularly in its early stages, involved collaboration. His work with engravers like Daniel Havell was essential for the dissemination of his "Twenty-four Views." This artist-engraver relationship was standard practice in the era before photography, with engravers playing a vital role in translating an artist's original watercolors or drawings into a printable format. The skill of the engraver was paramount in retaining the character and detail of the original work.
While in Egypt, Salt would have encountered other artists and draughtsmen, some employed by rival collectors or on their own expeditions. The community of Europeans in Egypt was relatively small, and individuals with shared interests in art and antiquities would inevitably have crossed paths. The competitive environment, however, likely limited extensive artistic collaborations in the field of Egyptology itself, though shared experiences and the common goal of documenting Egypt's wonders would have created a unique, if sometimes tense, artistic milieu. His early training with Farington and Hoppner placed him within the broader currents of British art, which included landscape artists like J.M.W. Turner (1775-1851) and John Constable (1776-1837), though Salt's path diverged significantly from theirs.
Legacy and Enduring Influence
Henry Salt died in Dissuke, near Alexandria, Egypt, in October 1827, at the relatively young age of 47. His health had reportedly suffered from the Egyptian climate and the rigors of his work. He left behind a complex legacy.
As an artist, his "Twenty-four Views" and other illustrations remain important visual records of regions that were, at the time, little known to the West. His work contributed to the romantic fascination with the "Orient" that characterized much of 19th-century European culture. His paintings and drawings of Egyptian monuments also served as crucial early documentation for the study of Egyptology.
In the field of Egyptology, Salt's impact is undeniable. The artifacts he collected form the bedrock of some of the world's most important museum collections, particularly at the British Museum and the Louvre. While his methods of acquisition are viewed critically today, his efforts, and those of his agent Belzoni, brought to light countless treasures and significantly advanced the understanding of ancient Egyptian civilization. He was a key figure in the pioneering generation of Egyptologists, working before the decipherment of hieroglyphs by Jean-François Champollion (1790-1832), which would revolutionize the field.
His contributions to the animal rights and vegetarian movements, though less widely known, mark him as a progressive thinker ahead of his time. These ethical concerns add another layer to the understanding of this multifaceted individual.
Conclusion
Henry Salt was a man of many talents and ambitions. From his beginnings as an aspiring painter in Lichfield, he evolved into an intrepid traveler, a skilled diplomat, a pioneering collector of antiquities, and an early advocate for humanitarian causes. His art provides a visual thread through his diverse career, capturing the landscapes and monuments that fascinated him and, in turn, fascinated Europe. While his role in the acquisition of Egyptian antiquities remains a subject of debate, his contributions to the development of Egyptology and to the enrichment of European museum collections are indisputable. Henry Salt remains a significant figure at the intersection of art, exploration, diplomacy, and the burgeoning science of archaeology in the early 19th century. His life and work offer a compelling window into a period of profound global change and discovery.
