Johannes Glauber, also known by his bentname "Polidoro," stands as a significant, if sometimes overlooked, figure in the rich tapestry of Dutch Golden Age painting. Active during the latter half of the 17th century and into the early 18th century, Glauber carved a niche for himself as a specialist in idealized, classical landscapes, deeply imbued with the spirit and light of Italy. His work reflects the enduring fascination of Northern European artists with the classical past and the sun-drenched vistas of the Italian peninsula, a trend that shaped a distinct subgenre within Dutch art. While his father, Johann Rudolf Glauber, was a celebrated chemist, Johannes and two of his siblings, Jan Gottlieb and Diana, pursued artistic careers, contributing to the vibrant cultural milieu of their time.
Early Life and Artistic Formation
Born in Utrecht around 1646, Johannes Glauber, whose first name is also often recorded as Jan, emerged from a family where scientific inquiry and artistic pursuits coexisted. His father, the alchemist Johann Rudolf Glauber, had settled in Amsterdam by 1655, and it is in this bustling artistic center that Johannes likely received his initial artistic training. While precise details of his earliest apprenticeship are somewhat scarce, the stylistic affinities in his later work suggest exposure to the prevailing trends in Dutch landscape painting, particularly the Italianate style.
The allure of Italy was potent for artists of this era. It was not merely a place of scenic beauty but the cradle of classical antiquity and Renaissance art, offering unparalleled opportunities for study and inspiration. Following a well-trodden path for ambitious Northern European artists, Glauber embarked on a journey southward. According to Arnold Houbraken, the primary chronicler of Dutch Golden Age painters, Glauber first traveled to Paris. There, he is said to have worked for a period with the Flemish flower painter Jean-Michel Picart, an experience that, while perhaps not directly shaping his landscape style, would have broadened his artistic horizons and connections.
His artistic development took a more definitive turn when he moved to Lyon, where he spent two years honing his skills, likely working with other artists and absorbing French classical landscape traditions, which themselves were heavily influenced by Italian models, particularly the works of Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain. This period in France served as a crucial stepping stone before his eventual immersion in the Italian art scene.
The Italian Sojourn and the Nickname "Polidoro"
Around 1675, Johannes Glauber arrived in Rome, the ultimate destination for artists seeking to steep themselves in classical art and the Italian landscape. In Rome, he became associated with the "Bentvueghels" (Dutch for "birds of a feather"), a society of mostly Dutch and Flemish artists active in the city. As was customary within this group, members were given a "bentname" or nickname. Glauber received the appellation "Polidoro," a clear reference to Polidoro da Caravaggio, a 16th-century Italian painter renowned for his landscape frescoes and classical scenes. This nickname was not arbitrary; it signified Glauber's stylistic alignment with the classical landscape tradition and his aspiration to emulate the grandeur and idealized beauty found in the works of Italian masters and their Northern followers.
During his time in Rome, Glauber would have diligently studied the works of past and contemporary masters. The influence of Gaspard Dughet, Nicolas Poussin's brother-in-law and a prominent exponent of classical landscape, is particularly evident in Glauber's structured compositions and serene, ordered natural settings. Claude Lorrain, with his masterful handling of light and atmospheric perspective, also left an indelible mark on Glauber and many other Italianate painters. Glauber spent approximately two years in Rome, absorbing these influences and developing his characteristic style.
His Italian journey did not end in Rome. Houbraken recounts that Glauber, in the company of his brother Jan Gottlieb Glauber and the painter Albert Meyeringh, then traveled to Padua. Here, they reportedly worked for some time, further refining their skills. Subsequently, the group moved to Venice, where they spent about two years before embarking on their return journey northwards in 1680. This extended period in Italy was foundational, providing Glauber with a rich repertoire of motifs, compositional strategies, and an understanding of light and atmosphere that would define his oeuvre.
Return to Northern Europe and Mature Career
Upon his return from Italy, Johannes Glauber did not immediately settle in the Dutch Republic. He first moved to Hamburg, where he remained for a few years, likely finding patronage among the city's affluent merchants. His brother, Jan Gottlieb, and his sister, Diana Glauber, who was also a painter specializing in portraits and historical scenes, joined him there. The presence of a family workshop or studio is plausible during this period.
Later, Glauber is documented as working in Copenhagen for a time, possibly for the Danish court or nobility, before eventually returning to the Netherlands and settling in Amsterdam. By the late 1680s or early 1690s, he was an established master, sought after for his decorative landscapes. It was during this period that he undertook some of his most significant commissions, often in collaboration with other artists who would paint the figures (staffage) into his expansive landscape settings. This practice was common, allowing specialists to combine their talents for a richer final product.
Artistic Style and Characteristics
Johannes Glauber's landscapes are archetypal of the Dutch Italianate tradition's later phase. They are not typically direct topographical representations but rather idealized, composite views, often evoking the Roman Campagna or mythical Arcadian settings. His compositions are carefully constructed, often featuring framing elements like majestic trees or classical ruins in the foreground, leading the eye through a series of planes into a distant, light-filled horizon.
A key characteristic of Glauber's work is its classical serenity and order. Nature is depicted not as wild and untamed, but as a harmonious, well-arranged backdrop for mythological, biblical, or pastoral scenes. The influence of Nicolas Poussin is evident in this structured approach, while the soft, golden light that often bathes his scenes, creating a sense of timelessness and tranquility, echoes the achievements of Claude Lorrain. He shared this stylistic inclination with other Dutch Italianates such as Jan Both, Jan Asselijn, Nicolaes Berchem, and Karel Dujardin, though Glauber's work often tends towards a more monumental and decorative quality, particularly in his later commissions.
His trees are often particularly noteworthy – tall, elegant, with feathery foliage, meticulously rendered yet contributing to the overall idealized effect. Water features, such as tranquil rivers or lakes, and distant mountain ranges are common elements, enhancing the depth and atmospheric perspective of his scenes. While his landscapes are the main subject, the human figures within them, though often painted by others, provide narrative context and scale.
Notable Works and Collaborations
One of Johannes Glauber's most significant collaborators was the prominent Amsterdam painter and art theorist Gerard de Lairesse. De Lairesse, a proponent of classicism in Dutch art, often painted the figures in Glauber's landscapes. This partnership resulted in several prestigious commissions. Among these, Houbraken mentions decorative wall paintings for various prominent residences.
Specific documented commissions include a series of large canvases for a room in the Soestdijk Palace, one of the residences of the Stadtholder William III (later King William III of England). These works, likely depicting hunting scenes or mythological narratives within expansive landscapes, would have been designed to create an immersive, illusionistic environment, following the decorative trends of the late Baroque period. Another important joint project with De Lairesse involved creating five large overdoor paintings (supraportes) depicting landscapes for the audience chamber of Het Loo Palace in Apeldoorn, another of William III's residences. These commissions underscore Glauber's reputation and his ability to produce grand-scale decorative works suitable for aristocratic and royal patrons.
While "Italianate Landscape with Shepherd and Shepherdess" or "Arcadian Landscape with Nymphs and Satyrs" are generic titles often applied to works in his style, specific, securely attributed easel paintings by Glauber can be found in various museum collections. These typically showcase his characteristic feathery trees, classical ruins, and serene, light-filled atmosphere. The figures in these works might have been added by artists like Dirk Maas, who is also known to have collaborated with Glauber, or the aforementioned Gerard de Lairesse.
His brother, Jan Gottlieb Glauber (bentname "Mirtillo"), was also a respected landscape painter, often specializing in harbor scenes and more rugged landscapes, sometimes collaborating with Johannes. Their sister, Diana Glauber (1650 – c. 1721), was a talented portraitist and history painter, though much of her work is now lost, partly due to her losing her sight later in life. The artistic activities of the Glauber siblings highlight a familial engagement with the arts.
Contemporaries and Artistic Milieu
Johannes Glauber operated within a vibrant and competitive art market. The demand for Italianate landscapes, while perhaps past its peak popularity compared to the mid-17th century, remained steady, particularly for decorative schemes in affluent homes. Besides the Italianate painters already mentioned like Nicolaes Berchem and Karel Dujardin, Glauber's contemporaries included artists specializing in different genres. For instance, the detailed genre scenes of Jan Steen or the refined interiors of Johannes Vermeer represent different facets of Dutch art.
In landscape painting itself, while Glauber focused on idealized Italian scenes, other artists like Jacob van Ruisdael and Meindert Hobbema were masters of the "native" Dutch landscape, depicting the woods, rivers, and skies of their homeland with remarkable realism and evocative power. Aelbert Cuyp was another contemporary who, while sometimes painting Italianate scenes, was renowned for his depictions of Dutch landscapes bathed in a warm, golden light, often featuring cattle.
The context of collaboration is crucial. Artists like Adriaen van de Velde (though he died relatively young in 1672, his influence on figure painting in landscapes was significant) were renowned for their skill in adding staffage to the works of landscape specialists. Glauber's partnership with De Lairesse was particularly synergistic, as De Lairesse's classical figures perfectly complemented Glauber's idealized settings. Other landscape painters who, like Glauber, spent considerable time in Italy and brought back an Italianate vision included Adam Pijnacker, known for his dramatic, sunlit Italian scenes, and Herman van Swanevelt, an earlier pioneer of the Italianate style who also influenced Claude Lorrain.
Later Years and Legacy
Johannes Glauber continued to work in Amsterdam, and later reportedly moved to Schoonhoven, near Gouda, where he is said to have lived with his brother Jan Gottlieb. He passed away around 1726. While he may not have achieved the same level of fame as the first generation of Italianate painters like Jan Both or Nicolaes Berchem, Johannes Glauber was a respected and productive artist who capably continued the tradition of classical, idealized landscape painting into the early 18th century.
His works served as important decorative elements in the homes of the wealthy and contributed to the overall aesthetic of the late Dutch Golden Age. His adherence to classical principles, influenced by Poussin and Claude, and his collaborations with prominent artists like Gerard de Lairesse, ensured his place within the narrative of Dutch art history. His paintings are reminders of the enduring Dutch fascination with Italy and the classical ideal, offering serene and harmonious visions of a world far removed from the often-turbulent realities of 17th-century Europe.
Today, his works can be found in museums such as the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, and various regional museums in Europe. They continue to be appreciated for their skilled composition, delicate rendering of foliage, and the tranquil, timeless atmosphere they evoke, representing a distinct and important strand of Dutch landscape art. Johannes "Polidoro" Glauber remains a testament to the cross-cultural artistic exchanges that enriched European art, successfully transplanting the light and classical spirit of Italy onto Northern European canvases.
