Utagawa Kunisada, who later in his illustrious career adopted the revered name Toyokuni III, stands as one of the most prolific, commercially successful, and influential ukiyo-e artists of 19th-century Japan. Born in 1786 in Honjo, Edo (present-day Tokyo), and passing away in 1865, his life and career spanned a period of significant social and cultural dynamism in Japan, the late Edo period. His immense body of work, primarily focused on kabuki actors (yakusha-e) and beautiful women (bijin-ga), not only captured the zeitgeist of his time but also left an indelible mark on the history of Japanese art and subsequently influenced Western art movements.
Early Life and Artistic Awakening
Born Sumida Shōgorō IX , and later known as Sumida Shōzō , Kunisada's early life was modest. His father, Sumida Shōbei, was a ferry boat operator with a license for the Toshimaya ferry on the Sumida River, and also an amateur poet under the name Gozu Shōbei. The young Kunisada lost his father when he was just a year old, a circumstance that likely shaped his resilience. Despite this early hardship, or perhaps because of it, he displayed a precocious talent for drawing and painting.
Recognizing his son's artistic inclination, his family, possibly through connections made by his ferryman father who would have interacted with a diverse clientele including those connected to the arts, managed to apprentice him to the leading ukiyo-e master of the time, Utagawa Toyokuni I (1769–1825). This was a pivotal moment. Toyokuni I was the head of the prestigious Utagawa school, a powerhouse in the world of ukiyo-e, known particularly for its dramatic and expressive depictions of kabuki actors.
Around 1800 or 1801, the young Kunisada officially joined Toyokuni I's studio. The Utagawa school, founded by Utagawa Toyoharu (1735–1814), had already established itself as a dominant force, eclipsing earlier schools like the Katsukawa school, led by figures such as Katsukawa Shunshō (1726-1793), in the realm of actor prints. Kunisada quickly proved to be a gifted student. He was given the artist's name (gō) "Kunisada," the "Kuni" part taken from his master's name, a common practice signifying his lineage within the school. His first known prints date from around 1807, and by 1808 he was illustrating books (e-hon).
Rising Prominence and the Utagawa School
Kunisada's talent was undeniable, and he rapidly gained recognition. His early works, while showing the influence of his master Toyokuni I, soon developed a distinct style characterized by a more robust and somewhat flamboyant depiction of figures, particularly kabuki actors. He was a contemporary of other notable artists like Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1798–1861), who was also a student of Toyokuni I and would become Kunisada's main rival and occasional collaborator. Another significant contemporary, though from a different artistic lineage and focus, was Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849), famed for his landscapes like "The Great Wave off Kanagawa."
The Utagawa school, under Toyokuni I, was a bustling hub of artistic production. It trained numerous artists who would go on to have successful careers, including Utagawa Kunimaru and Utagawa Kuninao. Kunisada, however, quickly emerged as one of its brightest stars. His ability to capture the likenesses and dramatic intensity of popular kabuki actors made his prints highly sought after by the theater-going public of Edo.
By the 1810s, Kunisada was already considered by many to be at least the equal of his master in terms of artistic skill and popularity, particularly in the genre of actor portraits. His output was prodigious, a testament to his skill, work ethic, and the efficient workshop system that characterized ukiyo-e production, involving publishers, woodblock carvers, and printers.
The Mantle of Toyokuni III
The death of Utagawa Toyokuni I in 1825 created a significant moment for the Utagawa school. The leadership and the prestigious "Toyokuni" name were passed to Utagawa Toyoshige (1777–1835), Toyokuni I's son-in-law and a competent but less artistically gifted pupil. Toyoshige became known as Toyokuni II. This succession was not without contention, as many, including Kunisada himself, felt that Kunisada was the more deserving heir to the Toyokuni name due to his superior talent and popularity.
Kunisada, however, continued to work under his own name, his fame and commercial success growing unabated. He dominated the market for actor prints and bijin-ga. It was only in 1844, nearly two decades after Toyokuni I's death and nine years after Toyoshige (Toyokuni II)'s passing, that Kunisada finally adopted the name Toyokuni. He signed his works as "Toyokuni II" for a brief period, effectively ignoring Toyoshige's claim, before predominantly using "Toyokuni III." This act asserted his belief in his rightful place as the true successor to the great Toyokuni I and head of the Utagawa school. From this point on, he is most commonly referred to in art historical contexts as Toyokuni III, though he also used other art names (gō) throughout his career, such as Gototei, Ichiyōsai, and Kōchōrō.
Artistic Style and Thematic Focus
Toyokuni III's artistic style evolved over his long career, but it was consistently characterized by strong, dynamic lines, vibrant colors, and a keen sense of design. He had an exceptional ability to capture the essence of his subjects, whether the flamboyant posturing of a kabuki actor or the demure elegance of a courtesan.
Yakusha-e (Actor Prints)
In the realm of yakusha-e, Toyokuni III was unparalleled in his era. Kabuki theater was the primary form of popular entertainment in Edo, and its star actors were celebrities. Prints of these actors, in their most famous roles or striking dramatic poses (mie), were eagerly collected by fans. Toyokuni III's actor prints are notable for their psychological depth and dramatic flair. He often depicted actors in close-up (ōkubi-e), allowing for detailed rendering of facial expressions, elaborate costumes, and distinctive makeup.
His works captured the energy of the kabuki stage, immortalizing actors like Ichikawa Danjūrō VII, Onoe Kikugorō III, and Bandō Mitsugorō III. He produced numerous series of actor prints, often linked to specific plays or commemorative events. His ability to convey the personality of both the actor and the character they portrayed was a key to his immense popularity.
Bijin-ga (Pictures of Beautiful Women)
Toyokuni III was also a master of bijin-ga. His depictions of women, often courtesans from the Yoshiwara pleasure district or fashionable urban women, set the standard for beauty in his time. These prints showcased the latest trends in hairstyles, kimono patterns, and accessories. While earlier bijin-ga artists like Kitagawa Utamaro (c. 1753–1806) or Torii Kiyonaga (1752–1815) had their own distinct styles, Toyokuni III brought a new vibrancy and often a more robust, less ethereal quality to the genre.
His bijin-ga often featured women in everyday settings or engaged in seasonal activities, providing glimpses into the lives and customs of Edo women. Series like Jūni tsuki no uchi , depicting women in activities appropriate to each month, were highly popular. He often imbued his female figures with a sense of fashionable confidence and allure.
Other Genres and Representative Works
While best known for actor and beauty prints, Toyokuni III also worked in other ukiyo-e genres. He produced historical scenes (musha-e), illustrations for popular novels (gōkan), sumo wrestler prints, and even some landscapes, though the latter were not his primary focus.
Some of his most celebrated series and works include:
Portraits of Actors in Various Roles: An ongoing production throughout his career, these form the bulk of his oeuvre.
Mitate Rokkasen : Often featuring contemporary beauties or actors in the guise of these classical poets.
Genji Monogatari series : He produced numerous series illustrating scenes from this classic Japanese novel, often adapting them to contemporary tastes by featuring popular actors or beauties in the roles. One notable series is Genji Kō no Zu .
Chūshingura : Illustrations of this perennially popular tale of samurai loyalty and revenge.
Ehon Taikōki : An illustrated book project from 1804 that, due to its depiction of recent historical figures (Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu), led to legal trouble for the artists and publisher involved, including a young Kunisada who was reportedly manacled for fifty days. This incident highlights the censorship ukiyo-e artists sometimes faced under the Tokugawa shogunate.
His prolific output is estimated to be between 20,000 and 25,000 individual print designs, a staggering number that surpasses even Hokusai and Utagawa Hiroshige (1797–1858).
Master of Collaboration
Collaboration was common in the ukiyo-e world, and Toyokuni III engaged in several significant partnerships that resulted in memorable works.
With Utagawa Hiroshige
Perhaps his most famous collaborations were with the renowned landscape artist Utagawa Hiroshige. In series like Sōhitsu Gojūsan-tsugi , Hiroshige typically designed the landscapes, while Toyokuni III added the figures. This combination of talents produced vibrant and popular scenes of the Tōkaidō road. Another notable collaboration was Tōto Kōmei Kaiseki Zukushi , where Hiroshige depicted the restaurant exteriors or surrounding landscapes, and Kunisada portrayed the beautiful women or patrons associated with them. They also worked together on series like Kannon Reigenki and Bijin Tōkaidō .
With Utagawa Kuniyoshi
Toyokuni III also collaborated with his contemporary and chief rival within the Utagawa school, Utagawa Kuniyoshi. Despite their rivalry, they worked together on several series, such as Mitate Tōkaidō Gojūsan-tsugi no uchi and Ogura Nazorae Hyakunin Isshu . These collaborations often showcased their distinct strengths, with Kuniyoshi known for his dynamic warrior prints and imaginative designs, and Kunisada for his refined figures.
With Hiroshige II and Disciples
After Hiroshige I's death, Toyokuni III continued to collaborate with Hiroshige's successor, Hiroshige II (Shigenobu). They worked on series such as a later Sōhitsu Gojūsan-tsugi. One charming triptych, Secchū Rakuen , features figures by Kunisada enjoying a snowy day with a giant snow rabbit, set against a landscape by Hiroshige (likely Hiroshige II).
Toyokuni III also headed a large studio and trained numerous pupils who carried on the Utagawa tradition. His most prominent students included Utagawa Kunisada II (1823–1880), who was his son-in-law and initially signed as Baidō Kunimasa III before inheriting his master's name, and Utagawa Kunichika (1835–1900), who became a leading ukiyo-e artist of the Meiji period, particularly known for his actor prints. Other students included Utagawa Kunimatsu, Utagawa Kuniteru III, and Utagawa Kunitsugu I. His tombstone is said to list around 29 individuals connected to him as students or followers, underscoring his role as a major teacher.
Challenges and the Tenpō Reforms
The life of an ukiyo-e artist was not without its challenges. Beyond the aforementioned Ehon Taikōki incident, artists and publishers had to navigate the strict censorship laws of the Tokugawa shogunate. The Tenpō Reforms (1841–1843) were a particularly difficult period. These were a series of austerity measures aimed at curbing luxury and perceived moral decline. Sumptuary laws heavily impacted ukiyo-e production, restricting the number of colors used in prints, the depiction of courtesans and actors in overly lavish ways, and subject matter deemed frivolous.
Despite these restrictions, Toyokuni III adapted his style and continued to produce popular works. The reforms, though impactful, were relatively short-lived in their strictest application, and the public demand for ukiyo-e remained strong. His ability to thrive even during such periods speaks to his artistic adaptability and business acumen.
Prolific Output and Commercial Success
Toyokuni III was arguably the most commercially successful ukiyo-e artist of his time. His prints sold in vast quantities, making him a wealthy man. This success was due to a combination of factors: his undeniable artistic talent, his keen understanding of public taste, his strong work ethic, and his effective management of a large studio. He was a master of self-promotion and maintained excellent relationships with the leading publishers of the day, such as Tsutaya Kichizō and Izumiya Ichibei.
His sheer productivity was astonishing. He seemed to effortlessly generate new designs, catering to the ever-changing fads and celebrity culture of Edo. This immense output, while ensuring his popularity during his lifetime, sometimes led to criticism in later eras, with some art historians suggesting that the quality could be uneven due to the sheer volume. However, at his best, Toyokuni III produced works of exceptional quality, beauty, and dynamism.
Influence on Western Art (Japonisme)
In the latter half of the 19th century, following the opening of Japan to the West, ukiyo-e prints began to arrive in Europe and America in large numbers. They had a profound impact on Western artists, contributing to the phenomenon known as Japonisme. Artists like Vincent van Gogh, Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, Mary Cassatt, and James Abbott McNeill Whistler were captivated by the bold compositions, flat areas of color, unconventional perspectives, and everyday subject matter of Japanese prints.
While Hokusai and Hiroshige are often cited as primary influences, the works of Toyokuni III, being so numerous, were also widely collected and studied. His dynamic actor portraits and elegant bijin-ga contributed to the Western fascination with Japanese aesthetics. Degas, for instance, was known to admire Kunisada's depictions of actors and their expressive gestures, which resonated with his own interest in capturing movement and theatricality in his paintings of dancers and café scenes. Monet was an avid collector of Japanese prints, and the influence can be seen in his compositional choices and decorative use of color.
Legacy and Enduring Impact
Utagawa Kunisada, as Toyokuni III, died in Edo in 1865, just a few years before the Meiji Restoration would usher in a new era for Japan. He left behind an enormous artistic legacy. His prints provide an invaluable visual record of the popular culture, fashion, and theater of late Edo Japan.
His influence extended through his many students, who continued the Utagawa school's traditions into the Meiji period. Artists like Kunichika adapted the Utagawa style to the changing times, incorporating new aniline dyes and responding to the evolving tastes of a modernizing Japan.
Today, Toyokuni III's works are held in major museum collections around the world, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the British Museum in London, the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and the Tokyo National Museum. Exhibitions of his work continue to draw crowds, and his prints are highly sought after by collectors.
While sometimes overshadowed in popular Western imagination by Hokusai or Hiroshige I, Utagawa Kunisada (Toyokuni III) was, in his own time, the undisputed king of ukiyo-e. His mastery of line and color, his ability to capture the vibrancy of Edo's popular culture, and his sheer productivity mark him as a true titan of Japanese art. His legacy is not just in the thousands of beautiful and dramatic prints he created, but also in the enduring influence of the Utagawa school and the broader impact of ukiyo-e on global art history. He remains a pivotal figure for understanding the artistic and cultural landscape of 19th-century Japan.
